Bibliography

Abbate-Vaughn, J. & Paugh, P. C. (2009). The paraprofessional-to-teacher pipeline: barriers and accomplishments. Journal of Developmental Education, 33(1), 14-27.

This study examined barriers experienced by veteran school paraprofessionals attempting to complete a 4-year degree leading to public school teaching credentials. The study followed culturally and linguistically diverse, nontraditional student-participants through their 1st and 2nd years as sophomore/junior students in a large urban university. The population exhibited a variety of academic, organizational, financial, and counseling needs typical of developmental learners. With significant numbers of adult learners re-entering baccalaureate degree-granting institutions, the notion of developmental education might be applied to such students; they bring a mix of academic needs and success through resilience based in their cultural funds of knowledge.

Amos, Y.T. (2013). Becoming a teacher of color: bilingual paraprofessionals’ journey to teach. Teacher Education Quarterly, 40(3), 51-73.

As the cultural gap between students and teachers continues to present numerous problems for students of color to succeed at school, recruitment and retention of minority students have been a concern in teacher education programs (McNulty & Brown, 2009). Research shows that pre-service students of color “bring a commitment to multicultural teaching, social justice, and providing children of color with an academically challenging curriculum” (Sleeter, 2001, p. 212). Further, Ehrenberg (1995) claims that once they become teachers, minority teachers serve more effectively than White teachers as role models and mentors for minority students and thus enhance their educational performance.

Austin T. Willett, J., Gebhard, M., Montes, A.L. (2010). Challenges for Latino educators crossing symbolic, cultural, and linguistic boundaries: coming to voice in teacher preparation with competing voices. Journal of Latinos and Education, 9(4), 262-283.

This article reports on a teacher education program’s preparation of bilingual paraeducators during a period of conflicting educational reform of structured English immersion in Massachusetts. Drawing on nexus analysis of discourses (R. Scollon & S. W. Scollon, 2004), we discuss factors faced by Latino educators. These include competing discourses, historical institutional inequities, and boundaries circumscribing the interactions between university and communities. Through the use of a participant’s text as a re-semiotized means of representing the new potentials that bilingual paraeducators bring to the field of teacher education, “cultural bumps” emerge and directions for teacher education are presented.

Bernal, C., & Aragon, L. (2004). Critical factors affecting the success of paraprofessionals in the first two years of Career Ladder projects in Colorado. Remedial and Special Education, 25(4), 205-213.

This article focuses on those factors that led to paraprofessionals’ successful completion of their first year in a postsecondary setting. Specifically, this paper addresses the conceptual framework upon which these programs were developed, takes the reader through a series of steps utilized in recruitment and preparation of paraprofessionals for entry into their postsecondary experience, and discusses the strategies used in assisting paraprofessionals for successful completion of their first year of study in a college setting.

Brandick, S. (2001). Paraeducator career ladders step up the teacher supply. Education Digest, 67(2), 31-34.

Focuses on the Paraeducator Career Leader, program of the Los Angeles Unified School District in California in response to a teacher shortage. Number of paraeducators as of October 2001; Characteristics that make them teacher candidates; Levels of the program; Questions that need to be answered before developing similar programs.

Burbank, M.D., Bates, A.J., & Schrum, L. (2009). Expanding Teacher Preparation Pathways for Paraprofessionals: A Recruiting Seminar Series. Teacher Education Quarterly, 36(2) Evidence-based research and diverse methods of teacher development, 199-216.

The landscape of public schools is changing. Nationally, nearly one third of school age children are cultural minorities versus only 16% of the teaching force (National Center for Education Statistics, a clinical associate 2003). Projections for the next twenty years estimate dramatic changes in national demographics with at 61% of the population increases occurring among members of the Hispanic and Asian communities.

Carrier, K. A., & Cohen, J. A. (2003). Personal and professional success in a bilingual teacher training project. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 1, 50-69.

This article describes factors that helped students succeed in a bilingual career ladder training project. Focus group methodology was used to interview students on their experiences. Results showed that structural factors like centralized advising, caring staff, and cohort groups, as well as, ancillary factors such as an increase in self-esteem, helped students succeed.

Clewell, B. C., & Villegas, A. M. (2001). Absence unexcused: Ending teacher shortages in high-need areas: Evaluating the pathways to teaching careers program. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute.

This is a recently completed six year evaluation of the Pathway to Teaching Careers program. This program funded by the DeWitt-Wallace Readers Digest fund trained people from three specific groups; emergency licensed substitutes, Peace Corps volunteers and paraeducators, to become teachers. They found that paraeducators were the most likely to remain in the teaching profession for more than three years and were more likely to work in urban areas upon completion of their training. Given the sometimes-desperate need for teachers in most urban school districts, this finding is a compelling argument for investing in paraeducators.

Dalla, R.L, Gupta, M.L., Lopez, W.E., Jones, V. (2006). It’s a balancing act!: Exploring school/work/family interface issues among bilingual, rural Nebraska, paraprofessional educators. Family Relations, 55, 390-402.

Nebraska’s rural school districts have a rapidly growing Spanish-speaking student body and few qualified instructors to meet their educational needs. This investigation examined factors that promote and challenge the ability of rural Nebraska paraprofessional educators to complete an online B.S. program in elementary education, with a K-12 English as a second language endorsement. Interviews focused on the interface between school, work, and family, with special attention on family system change and adaptation. Twenty-six bilingual paraprofessional educators enrolled (or formerly enrolled) in the education program were interviewed. Twenty were first- (n - 15) or second-generation (n - 5) immigrant Latino/as. Influences of program involvement on the marital and parent-child relationships are discussed, as are implications for future work with unique populations.

Dandy, E. (1998). Increasing the number of minority teachers: Tapping the paraprofessional pool. Education and Urban Society, 31(1), 89-103.

A program at Armstrong Atlantic State University designed to increase the number of minority teachers by recruiting paraprofessionals was selected to be one of the national Pathways to Teaching careers programs. The program wanted to address Georgia’s need for minority teachers by training classified school district employees, mostly paraprofessionals. Those selected had exemplary work records, better than average grades and a sincere commitment to teaching. The program provided tuition support for courses leading to a teaching certificate as long as the participants maintained a 2.5 GPA, attended all program-sponsored activities and agreed to work for the school district for at least three years after graduation. Unique features of the program included Friday replacements for participants to attend classes and program events, a GPA monitoring program, connecting the classroom with the community by having participants attend many community and cultural activities and special workshops.

Darling-Hammond, L. & Berry, B. (1999). Recruiting, preparing and retaining qualified teachers to educate all of America’s children in the 21st century. Journal of Negro Education, 68(3), 254-279.

In the coming decade, the nation must replace much of its current teachingforce. This heavy teacher recruitment period will have major implications for both educational quality and equality. Qualified teachers are not only a major determinant of student achievement but also one of the most inequitably distributed educational resources. Poor and minority children are routinely exposed to poorer quality curricula and teaching, which accountfor much of the achievement gap. Drawing on 20 years of wide-ranging research, this article describes policies and programs that can successfully recruit, prepare, retain, and support a diverse, well-qualified teaching force for all communities.

Duesbery, L. et. al. (2019). Developing and designing open border teacher education programs: case studies in online higher education. Journal of Educators Online, 16(1) p15.

Online classes in teacher education are becoming more common in higher education in the United States as universities realize that the same outcomes can be achieved without requiring preservice and in-service teachers to enter a physical classroom. This provides savings to both the student and university and fosters broader access to higher education and teacher education. In this series of case studies, we highlight both practical and innovative approaches as we analyze and discuss our experiences building and implementing online teacher education programs. We describe three new online programs on the west coast of the United States: a master’s degree in teaching in Cali-fornia, a reading endorsement program in Oregon, and a credential program in special education in Washington State. We discuss the initial program outcomes and the lessons learned to help guide teacher educators, administrators, and researchers in institutes of higher education. We culminate with five general recommendations for those considering program change or creation.

Epanchin, B.C., & Wooley-Brown, C. (1993). A university-school district collaborative project for preparing paraprofessionals to become special educators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 16(2), 110-123.

Like many paraeducators who become teachers the participants in this project were working, going to school, and balancing family responsibilities. A standard curriculum was used – based on state requirements, but packaging and delivery were altered to avoid redundancy and irrelevancy. They taught courses in blocks, at night and weekends. Faculty drove 140 miles round trip to accommodate needs of students who did not want to drive. Staffing courses was hard; faculty did not want to continue. The project also used highly skilled teachers as adjunct faculty to co-teach classes. Technology was infused into the program. They also used mentor teachers and ongoing peer support.

Ernst-Slavit G., Wenger, K.J. (2006). Teaching in the margins: the multifaceted work and struggles of bilingual paraeducators. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 37(1), 62-82

This article reports on one phase of a three-year ethnographic study of 20 bilingual paraeducators, drawing on photographic analysis and narrative inquiry. Enrolled in a credential program, paraeducators photographed “what your life is like as a bilingual paraeducator preparing to become a certified teacher.” Participants later constructed and reconstructed their perceptions during individual interviews. The analysis revealed that in spite of their in-depth knowledge of the students’ languages and cultures and their pivotal role in educating language minority students, these educators held marginal positions that were complex, multifaceted, and fragmented.

Fiechtl B. J., Hager, K. D. (2019). A statewide early childhood alternative teacher preparation program delivered via synchronous video conference. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 38(4) 210–216.

This article describes a statewide online alternative teacher preparation program in early childhood special education. The history and evolution of the program is explained along with the programmatic changes that resulted from working with noncertified teachers with a wide variety of backgrounds in both rural and urban districts. Challenges and solutions for providing coursework and supervision via distance to all areas of a state will be presented.

Flores, B.B., Keehn, S. & Perez, B. (2002). Critical need for bilingual education teachers: the potentiality of normalistas and paraprofessionals. Bilingual Research Journal, 26(3), 501-524.

Case study methodology was employed to explore the potentiality of normalistas and paraprofessionals as prospective bilingual education teachers. The evidence of this study suggests that both normalistas and paraprofessionals offer fertile ground for bilingual teachers. The evidence further suggests that careful selection of the potential candidates is crucial. Moreover, the teacher preparation program must creatively examine and implement a program of study that meets the needs of the target group. The findings also reveal that as the participants move through teacher preparation courses, members of both cohorts are willing to challenge old notions formerly held. The normalistas are recognizing that the U.S. system differs significantly from the Mexican educational system. While drawing on the richness and merits of the Mexican system, these immigrants are open to seeing merit in U.S. educational methods. Conversely, the paraprofessionals are beginning to question the deficit model pervasive in many of the schools in which they have worked and to take a different stance toward authority figures.

Garcia, A., Manuel, A. & Buly, M.R. (2019). A multifaceted approach to grow your own pathways. Teacher Education Quarterly, 46(1), 69+.

English learners (ELs) make up 10% of the U.S. student population and are increasingly enrolling in school districts that have little experience with educating these students. A majority of states report shortages in teachers prepared to work with ELs, particularly in the area of bilingual education. Grow Your Own (GYO) programs that recruit and prepare future educators from the community have the potential to increase the supply of bilingual educators who can provide ELs with instruction in their home languages and support their mastery of academic content. Policy makers in Washington State are taking an intentional approach toward remediating educator shortages in the state through alternative routes to certification, expanded pathways for paraeducators, and targeted course work for high school students. Alternative routes are positioned as a driver of local innovation that places emphasis on GYO approaches and the recruitment of teacher candidates from underserved populations. State grants support the development of university-school district partnerships to recruit and prepare a teacher workforce to meet localneeds. The WoodringHighline Bilingual Fellows program is a partnership aimed at preparing bilingual paraeducators to become licensed teachers in order to meet the school district’s growing need for bilingual educators. Key lessons from Washington’s myriad initiatives point to the need for collaboration between multiple stakeholders to ensure a common vision and mission for these programs.

Genzuk, M., & Baca, R. (1998). The paraeducator-to-teacher pipeline: A five-year retrospective on an innovative teacher preparation program for Latina (os). Education and Urban Society, 31(1), 73-88.

The Center for Multilingual Multicultural Research at the University of Southern California (USC) founded the Latino Teacher Project initially using funds from the Ford Foundation. The primary objective was to increase the number of Latinos entering the teaching profession. Current paraeducators were the focus of the program that provides them with financial, social and academic support during the time that they study to become bilingual teachers.

Genzuk, M. (1997). Diversifying the Teaching Force: Preparing Paraeducators as Teachers. ERIC Digest #96-2. Washington D.C: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education and American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education.

The current demographic makeup of our student and teaching populations, as well as the projections for the future, show a striking discontinuity between teacher and student diversity (American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1994). The nation’s nearly 500,000 paraeducators working in K-12 classrooms embody a promising source of prospective teachers who represent and may be more rooted in the communities they serve. Paraeducators are school employees whose responsibilities are either instructional in nature or who deliver other services to students. They work under the supervision of teachers or other professional personnel who have the ultimate responsibility for educational programs (Pickett, 1994). Paraeducator to teacher programs capitalize on the attributes that paraeducators bring to the program and the program streamlines their pathway into teaching. These programs foster stronger school/university collaboration, improved induction into teaching, and more graduated assumption of teaching roles as knowledge and skills are refined. Studies suggest that paraeducator to teacher program graduates bring a wealth of community and student knowledge to their practice, attributes that are highly regarded in today’s diverse classrooms (Haselkorn & Fideler, 1996).

Genzuk, M., Lavadenz, M., & Krashen, S. (1994). Para-educators: A source for remedying the shortage of teachers for limited English-proficient students. The Journal of Educational Issues for Language Minority Students, 14, 211-222.

This article makes recommendations for the design of career ladder projects designed to train for paraeducators to become teachers of language minority students. The authors point to the need for financial, academic, and personal support for paraeducators who are becoming teachers.

Gist, C. D. (2019). Grow your own programs and teachers of color: taking inventory of an emerging field. Teacher Education Quarterly, 46(1), 5+.

In 2007 Guest Editors Christine Sleeter and Yer Thao organized a Teacher Education Quarterly (TEQ) issue focused on diversifying the teacher workforce, situating the “demographic gap, not as a permanent natural condition, but rather as a social creation that has historical roots and can be changed” (p. 3). Bearing in mind the well documented and established benefits of Teachers of Color to students, schools, and the profession in general, Sleeter and Thao (2007) organized and featured programs to give concrete examples of what can be done to diversify the teacher workforce. Though most of the programs in that issue were not framed as Grow Your Own programs, many of the program initiatives evidenced innovations outside of traditional teacher education programs focused on expanding educator pipelines for Teachers of Color. They represented programmatic efforts such as paraprofessional pathways (e.g., Armstrong Atlantic State University Pathways Program or University of Illinois at Chicago Project 29 program), middle and high school to college bridge programs (e.g., Texas Tech University Project FUTURE and University of Texas at San Antonio Academy for Teacher Excellence), and clearly articulated commitments to recruit “individuals to work as educators in the communities in which they were raised and educated” (Irizarry, 2007, p. 87, Project TEACH) or establish “100% Hopi teachers for all schools on the Hopi reservation” (White, Bedonie, de Groat, Lockard & Honani, 2007, p. 73). Though not always explicitly named as such, they featured aspects and structural components of what is increasingly being referred to in the literature as Grow Your Own programs.

Gordon, J.A. (1995, June). Preparation for urban teaching: Post B.A. paraprofessionals. Paper presented to the faculty of the University of Washington. Seattle, WA. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 383 652.

The author outlines a paraprofessional career ladder program designed as a partnership between the Seattle Public Schools (SPS) and Western Washington University (WWU). Based on their experiences with this program, the speaker concludes that successful program to train diverse teachers need to include; “clear requirements and responsibilities, fair an equitable treatment of students, giving particular attention to first-generation college students, especially those who have been out of school for several years, faculty who are willing and able to work with urban students, provisions for mentoring students, financial support, and flexibility of class scheduling.”

Gross, J. (2018). Can immigrant professionals help reduce teacher shortages in the U.S.? World Education Services, New YorK, N.Y., 1-36.

At a national level, the supply of teachers has remained stable in recent years–however, at the state and local level, school districts have been wrestling with long-standing teacher shortages in a number of specific fields, including science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) subjects; career and technical education (CTE); bilingual education; and special education. Schools and students in low-income and minority neighborhoods often face particularly significant challenges in terms of recruiting and retaining teachers in hard-to-staff subjects. The report looks at the challenge of teacher shortages facing public schools across the U.S., and the role that internationally educated and trained immigrant and refugee professionals can play in addressing these shortages. The discussion focuses in particular on “alternative teacher certification” initiatives that seek to attract a diverse group of career changers and subject matter experts into the classroom–immigrant professionals among them. The report also offers policy recommendations at the local, state, and federal levels that would help advance such efforts, and support the development of a skilled and diverse teacher workforce that meets the needs of increasingly diverse schools.

Gursky D. (2000). From para to teacher. American Teacher, 84(8), 8.

This brief article discusses the strong match there is between the need for more teachers and the large number of paraprofessionals working in the nations’ schools. While not all paraprofessionals want to become teachers, a large number of would like to enter the profession. A barrier to their entering the profession is financial resource to complete college. School district grow-your-own programs that assist with this financial burden are recommended.

Haselkorn D., & Fideler, E. (1996) Breaking the class ceiling: Paraeducator pathways to teaching. Belmont, MA: Recruiting New Teachers, Inc.

This study of paraeducator to teacher programs concludes that (1) too many children are currently being consigned to dead-end futures; (2) too many teachers who want to do better, don’t have the tools to reach them and teach them; and (3) too many paraeducators who want to do more continue to bump up against a class ceiling. A class ceiling that is denying the nation their contributions at a time when America’s teacher recruitment, development, and diversity challenges require engaging our best minds, our deepest values, our strongest commitments.

Kaplan G. R. (1977). From aide to teacher: The story of the career opportunities program. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 139 798.

This report tells the story of the Career Opportunities Program. In the 1970’s this was the first career ladder program for paraeducators in the United States.

Lau, K. F., Dandy, E. B., & Hoffman, L. (2007). The pathways program: A model for increasing the number of teachers of color. Teacher Education Quarterly, 34(4), 27-40.

The Pathways to Teaching Careers Program was a national recruitment effort started in 1989 to bring teachers of color into the teaching profession. This effort was instrumental in forging the investment of some $50 million for a series of grants that included 26 programs in 66 colleges and universities, located in 43 cities in 26 states (the Armstrong Atlantic State University Pathways Program began as a grantee in 1992). The grant was targeted to produce, recruit and prepare more than 3,000 teachers, especially minorities, who would serve more than 100,000 students annually in urban and rural public school systems. Regional technical assistance for program direction in the southern states was provided by the Southern Education Foundation, that has a 125-year record for promoting equity and equality in education. A six-year study yielded a recruitment goal of 2,593 participants and documented an 81% retention rate. The national Pathways Program targeted three groups of school personnel – teacher assistants, substitute teachers, and provisionally certified teachers – all of whom were non-certified public school employees. Programs that participated in this initiative were required to have the following essential features: a consortium structure partnering historically black colleges and universities with traditionally white institutions and school districts, a value-added philosophy that guided recruitment and enhancements to teacher preparation curricula, and a nontraditional talent pool as the target recruitment population. In this article, the authors examine the Armstrong Atlantic State University Pathways to Teaching Program. First, they describe basic features of the program itself, and provide data on its graduates. Then, they report results of a study investigating factors underlying its high rate of retention. (Contains 3 tables and 1 note.)

LeTendre M. J. (1998). Paraprofessionals: A resource for tomorrows teachers. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 3 (2), 107-110.

Paraprofessionals often have accumulated valuable experience in their schools and communities and have acquired many of the skills needed to work effectively with children. In addition to having substantial classroom experience, research indicates that paraprofessionals enrolled in teacher preparation programs are frequently highly motivated and engaged educators who are interested in teaching in their home communities. Furthermore, the attrition rate of paraprofessionals is low relative to that of other teacher trainees. Several state and local educational agencies have established projects that can be used as examples for others wishing to implement career ladders. Although not all of these examples involve the use of Title I funds, such funds can be used to create similar career ladder programs for Title I instructional aides.

Littleton, D.M. (2012). Preparing Professionals as Teachers for the Urban Classroom: A University/School Collaborative Model. Action in Teacher Education, 19(4), 149-158.

This article describes a successful university/public school collaborative model to increase the number of minority teachers and ultimately to increase the quality of instruction for urban children. The DeWitt Wallace-ReaderS Digest Pathways to Teaching Project at Norfolk State University recruited and trained over ZOO paraprofessionals employed by the Norfolk Public School System to return to their place of employment as certified teachers. The project’s objectives included (1) providing participants a carefully designed comprehensive teacher education program that met the state teacher certification requirements, (2) providing a focus on skills, competencies and attitudes identified for successful teaching in the urban schools and (3) providing a series of seminars and other experiences in teaching in urban schools for in-service teachers, supervisors of the teacher aides and other program participants. The context for the development and implementation of the project, the project specifics and prelimina y results and conclusions after four years of operation are discussed.

Millard, S. (2010). National Clearinghouse for paraeducator resources: paraeducator pathways into teaching. Center for Multilingual, Multicultural Research, 24(1), 31-32.

Paraeducators are teachers’ assistants. For many paraeducators, this is the chance to see if they want to pursue a degree and become a professional teacher. Others decide to remain as paraeducators. For those that wish to become teachers, this may be one possible means of redressing the imbalance in education in the USA: as this site notes, less “than 13% of all current teachers are persons of colour, while over one third of their students are of colour”. This is the goal taken by Michael Genzuk in creating the National Clearinghouse for Paraeducator Resources: Paraeducator Pathways into Teaching (referred to as the Clearinghouse in this review). The Clearinghouse is committed to providing a comprehensive repository of resources that can aid in bringing talented paraeducators in to the teaching field. The Clearinghouse also provides a forum for further discussion through a listerv. This site can, and should, be considered as a basic and essential resource for all paraeducators. Unfortunately, it is not.

Morales A.R., Shroyer, G.M. (2016). Personal agency inspired by hardship: bilingual Latinas as liberatory educators. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 18(3), 1-21.

This qualitative multiple case study focused on eleven non-traditional, bilingual, Latinas within a teacher education program. The study explored various factors that influenced participants’ desire to pursue and ability to persist as pre-service teachers. The overarching theme identified among participant discourse was personal agency inspired by hardship. Findings indicated that, as a result of their cultural and experiential understandings, participants enacted culturally responsive teaching with their Latino/a students. Furthermore, participants demonstrated a strong sense of personal agency to improve the educational outcomes of culturally and linguistically diverse students and a desire to advocate specifically on behalf of English learner Latino/a students.

Morrison J., Lightner, L. (2017). Putting paraeducator’s on the path to teacher certification. Phi Delta Kappan, 98(8), 43-47

In response to local districts’ needs for certified teachers with community roots who understand local schools and students, the authors developed an innovative alternative route for paraprofessionals based on a traditional bachelor’s program. Their goals were to provide a rigorous, research-based program that allows paraprofessionals to get a university degree and, in the process, to get course credit for skills and knowledge gained on the job. This article describes both the challenges involved in developing the program and its successes.

Nittoli J. M., & Giloth, R. P. (1997). New careers revisited: paraprofessional job creation follow-income communities. Social Policy, 28, 44-61.

Reviews the state of programs today that were designed to help low-income communities increase their economic potential by employing people from their own neighborhoods and provide them training to work in human services positions in their own neighborhoods. The goal was not only to lift low income neighborhoods out of poverty by providing jobs to residents who came from the populations that they served, but to also provide additional education and training that would create career ladders into the professional ranks. Paraeducators career ladder programs are mentioned.

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory (1999). Designing state and local policies for the professional development of instructional paraeducators.

This report is a general guide to state and local education agencies that are designing policies for paraeducator development. Existing programs that demonstrate the key elements of effective paraeducator development are highlighted. Promising programs in the states of Iowa and Washington are described in some detail. Resources for possible standards and guidelines are suggested for states and local educational agencies exploring how to appropriately train their paraeducators. Information about post-secondary educational programs and the current scope of paraeducator training and employment are also presented.

Nunez, M., & Fernandez, M. R. (2006). Collaborative recruitment of diverse teachers for the long haul—TEAMS: Teacher education for the advancement of a multicultural society; innovative practices. Multicultural Education, 14(2), 14.

The recruitment of qualified teachers is an immense and demanding job, particularly for high-poverty urban schools. Urban schools often turn to the common practice of recruiting teachers who are under qualified, most of them with no teaching experience and limited training. Because of their lack of preparation, coupled with the difficult working conditions they face and the inadequate support within their schools, these beginning teachers are likely to leave the profession soon after they enter. The attrition data is challenging: 33% of beginning teachers leave within the first three years of teaching, and almost 50% leave within five years. The TEAMS (Teacher Education for the Advancement of a Multicultural Society) Teaching Fellowship Program is a collaborative model of positive recruitment that prepares diverse teachers, paraprofessionals, and counselors for service in urban, public school with the goal of increasing the academic success of all students. The TEAMS Program has implemented a unique model that provides a winning situation for all who are involved by using creative partnering to recruit, prepare, and support a confident, critical, and diverse teaching force prepared to tackle the challenges of inner-city teaching for the long haul. The program model rests on the assumption that by providing financial support to acquire a teaching credential, focusing training activities on diversity, multiculturalism, and effective teaching strategies for urban schools, developing a network of like-minded educators, and intentionally targeting communities of color for recruitment, a diverse group of capable teachers committed to a career in public school teaching will emerge. (Contains 2 notes.)

Osterling J.P. Buchanan, K. (2010). Tapping a valuable source for prospective ESOL teachers: Northern Virginia’s bilingual paraeducator career-ladder school–university partnership) (2003). Bilingual Research Journal, 27(3), 503-521.

This study describes and analyzes a teacher-education partnership between two institutions of higher education (IHEs) and three local educational agencies (LEAs) located in a large suburban area. Working collaboratively, these five organizations designed and developed a career-ladder teacher-education program that prepares experienced bilingual paraeducators currently working full time at local schools to become “highly qualified” teachers of English for Speakers of Other Languages, as defined by the No Child Left Behind Act (2002). In this paper, we examine the needs and perspectives of an IHE–LEA partnership and their dynamic relationship to address the specific instructional needs of paraeducators.

Pearl A., & Reissman, F. (1965). New careers for the poor: The nonprofessional in human service. New York: Free Press.

This book is the original plan for the New Careers Program in the 1960’s and 70’s.

Rader, T., Pennell, S. (2019). Diversity in the teacher pipeline. The Learning Professional; Oxford 40(2), 48-52.

Given that over 5 million K-12 students in the U.S. public school system are classified as English learners (NCES,2017), many policymakers and school leaders recognize that public schools need ethnically and linguistically diverse educators. But about 80% of teaching staff are white (Williams, Garcia, Connally, Cook, & Dancy, 2016), and only 13% speak another language in addition to English. To bridge this gap, some school districts have turned to bilingual paraeducators (sometimes called paraprofessionals or teacher aides) tosupport students’ learning — and tocultivate the next wave of licensed teachers.

Recruiting New Teachers (2000). A guide to developing paraeducator-to-teacher programs.

This comprehensive document is part of Recruiting New Teacher’s “Toolkit,” designed to help states and school districts meet their teacher recruitment and retention challenges. This guide will help you understand: The value of paraeducator-to-teacher programs, obstacles paraeducators face in becoming teachers, important elements of effective programs, what is involved in staffing and recruiting participants, and how to build support for your program.

Rintell E. M., & Pierce, M. (2002). Becoming maestra: Latina paraprofessionals as teacher candidates in bilingual education. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 466 463.

This paper describes the experiences of Latina paraeducators who were recruited into a career ladder project to become teachers in Salem Massachusetts. Many of these paraeducators were immigrants from Central and South America. They became paraeducators in several ways. The two most common pathways were either parent volunteers who were hired because of their bilingual skills or teachers from other countries who became paraeducators in the U.S. while trying to figure out the system for becoming certified here. The paper discusses how they used their cultural traits to become successful in the teacher education program.

Rueda R. S. & Monzo, L. D. (2000). Apprenticeship for teaching: Professional development issues surrounding the collaborative relationship between teaches and paraeducators. Santa Cruz: University of California, Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence.

Paraeducators in this study had one of three working relationships with teachers: Paraeducator as clerical support, Paraeducators as implementer of teacher plans, or Paraeducator as apprentice teacher. This role differentiation influenced the paraeducators desire to go on to become teachers. Those whose roles were more clerical in nature had less interest in becoming teachers than those whose roles were more apprentice like.

Safarik L. (2001). Lives in transition. Utah: National Resource Center for Paraprofessionals.

This article reviews a multi-agency career ladder training program for paraeducators. The personal stories of several participants are shared.

Sandoval-Lucero, E., Maes, J. B., & Chopra, R. (2011). Examining the retention of non-traditional Latina(o) students in a career based learning community.

Learning communities are designed to increase student persistence and academic achievement and are a retention strategy to increase these outcomes for first year college students. This article examines the educational outcomes for a learning community specifically designed for non-traditional Latina(o) students enrolled in a grant funded program to become bilingual teachers. The learning community model was a grant objective. Student evaluations, retention and graduation rates were analyzed to examine the effectiveness of the learning community.

Sandoval-Lucero, E. (2006). Recruiting paraeducators into bilingual teaching roles: The importance of support, supervision, and self-efficacy. Bilingual Research Journal., 30 (1), 195-218.

This mixed methods study examined the self-efficacy beliefs of paraeducators who became bilingual teachers and paraeducators who did not to explore the possibility that self-efficacy plays a role in paraeducators’ career decisions. Data were collected through three sources: a survey, career goal statements, and interviews. Fourteen participants were included in the study. There were qualitative differences and significant quantitative differences between the two groups. Those who became bilingual teachers described work environments and duties that promoted the development of their teacher efficacy. Those who remained in the paraeducator roles described very different work environments. The study highlights the importance of clearly defining paraeducators’ roles and responsibilities in ways that utilize their skills, abilities, and interests, and promote their career development.

Sandoval-Lucero, E. & Chopra, R. V. (2010). Paraeducator career ladder cohorts as learning communities. National Teacher Education Journal, 3(2), 1-11.

Paraeducators are an excellent source of new teachers. However, many face academic, social, and financial challenges to completing college and teacher licensure. Cohort learning communities are an effective format for career ladder programs training paraeducators to become teachers. The learning community format offers a supportive learning environment where paraeducators can make connections both inside and outside the classroom that help them successfully navigate the college system to achieve their goal of graduation and teacher licensure.

Stricklin K. & Billie Tingle, B. (2016). Using online education to transition teaching assistants to teacher certification: Examining the differences between teacher education programs. American Journal of Distance Education, 30(3), 192-202.

Elementary education teacher candidates who studied under two delivery methods—online and face to face—were compared to determine if there was a significant difference in professional knowledge and skills using Praxis II test scores. The participants included 60 teaching assistant program (TAP) online candidates and 564 face-to-face candidates. The two groups’ perceptions of self-efficacy were also compared. Results indicated a significant difference in professional knowledge based on Praxis II test scores and no significant difference in perceptions of self-efficacy. Although both groups felt confident in their teaching abilities, the traditional candidates outperformed TAP candidates on Praxis II. However, in the ancillary findings of this study, 41.6% of traditional candidates were admitted to the teacher education program with a Praxis I exemption, whereas only 23.4% of TAP candidates were exempt from the requirement. This suggests that traditional candidates entered the program at a more advanced level than the TAP candidates, possibly explaining the significant difference in the finding of the Praxis II test scores.

Valenciana, C., Morin, J. A., & Morales, R.S. (2005). Meeting the challenge: Building university/school district partnership for a successful career ladder program for teachers of English Learners. Action in Teacher Education, 27(1), 10.

This article describes a career ladder program for paraeducators in which collaborative efforts of a university, community college, and consortium of school districts addresses the need for preparing teacher of English-language learners. Thirty paraeducators of minority background were supported through the California Paraprofessional Teacher Training Program, California Commission on Teacher Credentialing. This article focuses on (a) the program goals, (b) participant recruitment and retention, © participant cohort, and (d) program support. The program was built on the concept of a community of learners in which the participant obtained a B.A. degree and a California Multiple Subject (elementary) Bilingual Culture Language Acquisition Development/Culture Language Acquisition Development Credential. This program provided teachers from an underrepresented group to meet the need for credentialed teachers of English learners as well as to diversify the teaching force.

Valenciana, C. Weisman, E.M. & Flores, S.Y. (2006). Voices and perspectives of Latina paraeducators: the journey toward teacher certification. The Urban Review, 38(2), 81-99.

This study employed open-ended questions on a survey, a focus group interview and participant observations to document the perspectives of Latina paraeducators concerning the challenges and support systems they encountered in order to complete college and gain admission to a teacher certification program. Findings reveal that their challenges included a lack of knowledge about higher education, unresponsive institutional bureaucracies, and the need for financial aid. Family and a cohort group of peers were identified as important sources of support and motivation. As a result of the struggles they experienced these paraeducators expressed a strong commitment of helping others to pursue academic and professional goals. This work highlights the need to critique and transform fundamental inequities within institutional structures that obstruct equal educational opportunities and hinder the recruitment of bicultural teachers.

Villegas A. M., & Clewell, B. C. (1998) Increasing the number of teachers of color for urban schools, lessons from the pathways national evaluation. Education and Urban Society, 31(1), 42-61.

Data reported in this article was collected as part of a five-year evaluation of the Pathways program. The 27 sites in the paraprofessional and emergency-certified teacher strand are the focus of the article. The evaluation was both quantitative and qualitative. The study found that he components of successful programs include: Forging partnerships between the teacher education program and urban school districts; using flexible and varied criteria to select participants; providing a network of academic and social support; modifying the teacher education curriculum; securing tuition assistance.

Villegas A.M., & Clewell, B.C. (1998). Increasing teacher diversity by tapping the paraprofessional pool. Theory Into Practice, 37(2), 121-130.

Part of a special issue on preparing teachers for cultural diversity. Paraprofessionals represent a largely untapped pool from which people of color can be recruited and prepared for a teaching career. Increasing the proportion of teachers of color in public schools is necessary so that these teachers can serve as cultural brokers for the growing number of students of color and as role models for all students. In order to serve these paraprofessionals well, teacher education programs must set up partnerships with school districts to plan and implement a career ladder program, use multiple sources of information to select paraprofessionals for such a program, provide academic and social support services, modify the teacher education program, and secure tuition assistance.

Villegas, A.M. & Davis, D. E.“ (2007). Approaches to diversifying the teaching force: Attending to issues of recruitment, preparation, and retention. Teacher Education Quarterly 34 (4), 137-147.

An epilogue to a special issue on diversification of the teaching force. The writers consider approaches to diversifying the teaching force. They place approaches outlined in the special issue articles in a broader discussion of recruiting, preparing, and retaining prospective teachers of color. They discuss approaches targeting enrolled undergraduate students with undeclared majors, precollege students, community college students, residents of communities of color, and bachelor degree holders. Based on the special issue articles, they draw several conclusions about diversifying the teaching force.

Wall S., Davis, K. L., Winkler Crowley, A. L., & White, L. L. (2005). The urban paraprofessional goes to college. Remedial and Special Education 26(3), 183-190.

This article reviews an urban paraeducator training program established between three partners to help paraeducators attend college to meet the NCLB requirements. In the first two cohorts of students who began the program, they learned many important lesions about paraeducators attending college. First, that paraeducators bring many strengths including more closely matching the demographic make of their students. However, they need quite a lot of academic and personal support in order to be successful in college level classes.

White R. (2004). The recruitment of paraeducators into the special education profession: A review of progress, select evaluation outcomes, and new initiatives. Remedial and Special Education 25 (4), 214-218.

This article provides an argument for the recruitment of paraeducators into the special education teaching profession. It provides a rationale for the recruitment of paraeducators and a report on the state-of-the-art of paraeducator career ladder programs in special education.

Abbott E.A. (2013). Perspectives of paraeducators on collaboration in music therapy sessions. Canadian Journal of Music Therapy, 19(1), 47-65.

Twenty paraeducators who worked in a suburban special education center with two music therapists participated in focus-group interviews that explored their perspectives on the music therapy sessions in which they assisted. The paraeducators defined collaboration and described their own and the music therapists’ contributions to the music therapy sessions as well as the learning that they and the music therapists received from one another. Qualitative analysis of the interview transcripts showed that these paraeducators clearly differentiated between the expertise that they and the music therapists contributed to the music therapy sessions and that role clarity, mutual learning, and respect were keys to their successful collaborative relationshp with the music therapists.

Battaglia E., & Brooks, K. (2019). Strategies for co-teaching and teacher collaborations. Science Scope; Washington, 43(2), 80-83.

Students with complex special needs are frequently placed in mainstream science classes. The students are often several grade levels below their classmates in reading, and are in the class with little or no support. Sometimes the special education teacher or a paraeducator (teacher assistant) is in the classroom, but due to a lack of science content knowledge he or she spends the class period in the back of the room taking notes or assisting the special education students alone. However, the talents of that person can be put to much better use.

Biggs E. E., Gilson, C. B., & Carter, E. W. (2016). Accomplishing more together: Influences to the quality of professional relationships between special educators and paraprofessionals. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 41(4), 256-272.

Fostering and maintaining strong collaborative relationships are critically important for paraprofessionals and special education teachers working together to provide a high-quality education for students with severe disabilities. Through in-depth interviews with 22 teachers and paraprofessionals comprising nine educational teams, we examined educator perspectives on what influences the quality of their professional relationships, as well as how their perspectives on these influences converged or diverged. Teachers and paraprofessionals identified five themes of influences to the quality of their relationships: teacher influences, paraprofessional influences, shared influences (i.e., related to the collective efforts of teachers and paraprofessionals), administrative influences (i.e., related to school and district leaders), and underlying influences (i.e., related to contextual or other factors). The findings highlight the complex nature of these relationships and emphasize the importance of supporting teachers and paraprofessionals as they work together to meet the needs of students with severe disabilities. We offer recommendations for future research and practice aimed at strengthening the quality and impact of special educator–paraprofessional collaborations.

Blalock G. (1991). Paraprofessionals: Critical team members in our special education programs. Intervention in School and Clinic, 26(4), 200-214.

The article reviews the use of paraprofessionals in special education programs and offers specific guidance on hiring (including preemployment orientation, vocational assessment, and interviewing); training and supervision (including roles and responsibilities, the importance of regular cooperative planning, and enhancing job status); and resources for training. (DB)

Bouchard, M., & Stegemoller, J. W. (2019). Tools to support collaboration in educating emergent multilingual students: jumpstart and electronic performance log. i.e.:inquiry in education, 11(2), 1-21.

Teaching English language learners, referred to as emergent multilingual students here, is a complex endeavor including ESL and bilingual teachers, content teachers, and paraeducators, among others, for example special education teachers and reading specialists, to name a few. As a result, the Illinois State Board of Education’s (ISBE) guidance for the development of ESL and bilingual education stresses that “intentional and consistent collaboration between all teachers and school personnel serving English learners is a vital component to all effective English learner programs” (ISBE, 2016b). To achieve this level of concerted collaboration within ESL education, ISBE’s guidance suggests that educators utilize technology to remove barriers to collaboration and to increase the potential to crowdsource expertise. A 2016 report titled The Collaboration Imperative (ISBE, 2016a), written by ESL and bilingual education experts to advise the Illinois State Superintendent of Education, singles out ineffective collaboration among teachers and other stakeholders as a significant challenge to educating emergent multilingual students. To increase the effectiveness of instruction for emergent multilingual students, the ISBE report recommends the creation of digital communities of practice to increase quality collaboration at the district level. This paper provides an example of tools that can be used to increase not only collaboration but also the effectiveness of the role of paraeducators in educating emergent multilingual students.

Cipriano C., Barnes, T.N., Bertoli, M.C., Flynn, L.M., & Rivers, S.E. (2016). There’s no “I” in team: Building a framework for teacher-paraeducator interactions in self-contained special education classrooms. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 51(2), 4-19.

Students educated in self-contained special education classrooms and the teachers who serve them are in crisis. Self-contained classrooms are separate from general education classrooms and may be resource classrooms housed within general education schools or separate schools or districts serving primarily students with disabilities. Underresearched and excluded from most large-scale efficacy and response to intervention (RTI) trials, students in self-contained classrooms make little progress academically and behaviorally (Lane, Wehby, Little, & Cooley, 2005; Siperstein, Wiley, & Forness, 2011). These outcomes are poorest among the approximately 362,000 students in American public schools who are categorized as having an emotional and/or behavioral disorder (EBD; US Department of Education, 2015). Students with EBD face many academic and behavioral challenges in schools including school failure, a higher likelihood of conflict with peers and school personnel, and the highest drop-out rates among students in both general and special education settings (Wynne, Ausikatis, & Satchwell, 2013). Our interest is in improving outcomes for students in these restrictive educational settings (i.e., classrooms, schools, or facilities serving students with disabilities in settings separate from their nondisabled peers).

Coleman M.B., Cramer, E.S., Park, Y., Bell, S.M. (2015). Art educators’ use of adaptations, assistive technology, and special education supports for students with physical, visual, severe and multiple disabilities. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 27(5), 637-660.

The purpose of this study was to examine art educators’ use of adaptations, including assistive technology, and their reported supports from special education personnel to meet the needs of students with physical, sensory, severe, and multiple disabilities in the art classroom. Seventy-seven P-12 art teachers responded to an online survey items consisting of perceived knowledge and preparedness and strategies and resources, including assistive technology, used in the art classroom. Results showed that (a) neither years of teaching experience nor number of students with disabilities taught were related to frequency of use of assistive technology; (b) respondents agreed/strongly agreed that it is important for students with significant disabilities to participate in artmaking (96 %); (c) in response to a list of assistive technology devices, over half reported using most of them rarely or never. Those most commonly reported were large-handled writing or painting tools, adapted scissors, and devices for stabilization; and (d) one-fourth of the respondents reported “never” working collaboratively with a special education teacher and most reported collaboration happens only “sometimes.” Findings suggest the need for more preservice and inservice preparation for art teachers to most effectively engage students with significant disabilities as well as more preparation for special education teachers and paraeducators in both collaboration and specific assistive technology expertise.

Cremin H. Thomas, G., & Vincett, K. (2005). Working with teaching assistants: Three models evaluated. Research Papers in Education, 20(4), 413-432.

Questions about how best to deploy teaching assistants (TAs) are particularly opposite given the greatly increasing numbers of TAs in British schools and given findings about the difficulty effecting adult teamwork in classrooms. In six classrooms, three models of team organization and planning for the work of teaching assistants – “room management”, “zoning” and “reflective teamwork” – were evaluated using a repeated measures design for their effects on children’s engagement. Detailed interview feedback was also gained from participating teachers and assistants about the perceived benefits of each model and possible adaptations to the models for future classroom use. All three models were found to effect significant improvements in engagement in all of the classrooms, and each was evaluated positively by participants, with useful commentary concerning adaptation.

Daniels V.I. & McBride, A. (2001). Paraeducators as critical team members: Redefining roles and responsibilities. NASSP Bulletin (85) 623, 66-74.

This article is a review of literature the literature on paraeducators as team members and teacher-paraeducator collaboration. It is written from the perspective of what principals need to know about paraeducators as team members.

Demchak M. A. & Morgan, C.R. (1998). Effective collaboration between professionals and paraprofessionals. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 17 (1), 10-15.

This article provides information about the roles of team members. It provides a table that differentiates between the duties and responsibilities of general education teachers, special education teachers and paraeducators who work together in teams to serve the needs of children with disabilities.

Devecchi C. & Rouse, M. (2010). An exploration of the features of effective collaboration between teachers and teaching assistants in secondary schools. Support for Learning, 25(2), 91-99.

This article explores notions of support and collaboration between teachers and teaching assistants (TAs) in two secondary schools in England. In particular it reviews how team members created opportunities and established collaborative practices aimed at including each other in the task of providing support for children who are described as having difficulties in learning. The data from the ethnographic study, which were collected through a variety of methods and were generated with the support and participation of teachers, heads of departments, special educational needs co-ordinators (SENCOs) and teaching assistants, suggest that the successful inclusion of students is dependent on how schools as organisations and communities are able to support the inclusion of adults as well.

Gosselin, K. S., Sundeen, T. H. (2019). Supporting literacy instruction for students with extensive support needs in rural settings through collaboration: so much better when we work together! Rural Special Education Quarterly, 38(1), 53-64.

The roles of teachers and related service providers (e.g., speech-language pathologists, occupational therapists, physical therapists) are vital to skill acquisition and meaningful access to the general education curriculum for students who have been identified as having significant or extensive support needs. However, often delivery of instruction can become fragmented and disjointed as time for service providers to collaborate with team members is limited in rural schools. As a result, students with more extensive support needs may not receive adequate access to systemic and meaningful literacy instruction. This article will identify the obstacles as well as three strategies special education teams can use to improve communication and collaboration.

Hauge, J.M. & Babkie, A.M. (2006). Develop collaborative special educator-paraprofessional teams: One paraeducator’s view. Intervention in School and Clinic, 42 (1), 51-53.

Special educators and the paraprofessionals with whom they work need to establish and maintain a collaborative relationship to better serve the children assigned to them. In this article, one paraprofessional recommends what special educators can do to make the most of these working relationships. The ideas reflect her experience working as a one-on-one and a general inclusion para in resource and inclusive settings.

Kurth J.A., Keegan, L. (2014). Development and use of curricular adaptations for students receiving special education services. The Journal of Special Education, 48(3), 191-203.

This study is a quasi-experimental descriptive design, with existing educator-made adaptations evaluated. The goals of this study were to (a) describe how educators develop adaptations and (b) evaluate the effectiveness of educator-made adaptations in facilitating the learning of students with disabilities. Findings suggest that (a) most adaptations were made in core general education classes; (b) experienced educators created more simplified curricular adaptations, whereas novice educators created more functional alternative adaptations; (c) educators are generally satisfied with the adaptation they have created and believe it was effective in teaching the student; (d) educators spent on average 59.1 min creating the adaptation; (e) educators in rural areas and novice educators provided adaptations that were rated lower in quality and clarity than experienced and urban educators; and (f) general education teachers provided adaptations that were of lower quality and clarity than special education teachers and paraeducators. Recommendations for practice are provided.

Lambert J.M., Lopano, S.E., Noel, C.R. & Ritchie, M.N. (2017). Teacher-conducted, latency-based functional analysis as basis for individualized levels system in a classroom setting. Behavioral Analyses in Practice. 10(4), 422-426.

Latency-based functional analysis (FA) may be appropriate when stakeholders are concerned with safety or feasibility. We trained a first-year special education teacher to collect data while she implemented a latency-based FA and validated a function-based intervention. Treatment effects were generalized across paraeducators and were maintained during a 1-month follow-up.

Lane, K. L., Oakes, W. P., Royer, D. J. (2019). Using the schoolwide expectations survey for specific settings to build expectation matrices. Remedial and Special Education, 40(1), 51-62.

Schoolwide expectations are a critical component of tiered systems of support, particularly when established with input from faculty and staff and then taught to all students. The expectation matrices depicting these expectations for all key settings serve as important instructional tools when teaching schoolwide expectations. In this study, we examined psychometric properties of the Schoolwide Expectations Survey for Specific Settings (SESSS)—a measure designed to assist school teams in K-12 settings constructing schoolwide expectations for seven school settings with input from all faculty and staff—with results indicating strong internal consistency of items. These settings are classrooms, hallways, cafeterias, playgrounds, restrooms, buses, and arrival/dismissal. In addition, we examined the degree to which adults in elementary, middle, and high school converged and diverged in their expectations for each setting. Using mixed-effects modeling for nested data, we found some expectations varied among school levels in some noninstructional settings. We conclude with limitations and future directions.

Logan A. (2001). Collaboration between teachers and special needs assistants in mainstream primary schools. REACH Journal of Special Needs Education in Ireland, 15(1), 33-42.

The author describes a trend that has emerged in Ireland following the enactment of their 1998 Education Act, namely an increase in the number of resource teachers and the number of special needs assistants. She reports that, “ in March 2001, the Minister for Education and Science announced that over the previous two years the number of resource teachers has risen from less than 300 to 750 and that the number of special needs assistants had increased from 299 to 1750” (p. 33). Due to the lack of research data in Ireland about these issues she discusses research from Britain. The remainder of the article address: (1) changing roles (from care and housekeeping to instruction); (2) supporting the pupil, teacher and school; (3) working collaboratively; (4) communication; (5) joint planning and evaluation, (6) clarity in role definition, (7) management implications, and (8) joint training.

Manz P.H. Power, T.J., Ginsburg-Block, M., Dowrick, P.W. (2010). Community paraeducators: a partnership-directed approach for preparing and sustaining the involvement of community members in inner-city schools. School Community Journal, 20(1), 55-80.

Inner-city schools located in high poverty communities often operate with insufficient resources to meet the educational needs of students. Community residents serving as paraeducators offer the dual benefits of expanding instructional capacity and fostering family-school relationships, provided they are appropriately prepared and incorporated with professional staff. This paper introduces a community partnership model for preparing members of the local community to serve as paraeducators and for fostering their working partnerships with professional school staff. A theoretical rationale demonstrating the significance of this model for students from low-income and ethnic minority backgrounds is presented, and key elements in establishing it are discussed. The application of the community partnership model for preparing paraeducators is illustrated through a case example, the Reading Partners program. Future directions to empirically advance the community partnership model are presented. (Contains 1 figure and 1 table.)

McGrath, M.Z., Johns, B.H., & Mathur, S.R. (2010). Empowered or overpowered? Strategies for working effectively with paraprofessionals. Beyond Behavior, 19(2), 2-6.

Across the nation, special educators are the most thinly stretched professional educators, and they do need carefully designed support from paraprofessionals. Giangreco and Broer (2009) reported that assigning paraprofessionals either to classrooms or to individual children with disabilities has become a growing model of providing services to students with disabilities. Although the paraprofessional is defined as an individual who assists with the delivery of services and acts under the direction of licensed staff, interestingly, research indicates that paraprofessionals report that they have more responsibility than is appropriate and that they do not receive adequate guidance. When faced with challenges from paraprofessionals in communication, student and parent relationships, and program operation, special educators may be at a loss as to what to say or do. In this article, the authors present 10 questions that teachers working with paraprofessionals may ask. Since capable teachers experience challenges of various kinds when working with various paraprofessionals, the authors offer supportive suggestions for dealing with any of the 10 “how” and “what” questions. They also present a chart that summarizes the 10 challenges special education teachers face in working with paraprofessionals and possible solutions to those challenges.

Miller, A., Lieberman, L., Lane, K., Owens, R. (2019). Preparing your paraeducator for success. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 90(5), 47-51, DOI: 10.1080/07303084.2019.1583026.

This article provides a handout that promotes communication between general physical education teachers and the paraeducators that they work with.

Miramontes O. B. (1990). Organizing for effective paraprofessional services in special education: A multilingual / multiethnic instructional service team model. Remedial and Special Education, 12(1), 29-36.

The author recommends joint training for MMIS team members specifically on issues of 2nd language acquisition and its affect on learning, how to interpret and administer tests that are written in one language and translated to another, and information on how to strengthen school-community relations. The article emphasizes team collaboration to solve many problems associated with translators and second language programming for students.

Morgan J., & Ashbaker, B.Y. (2001). 20 ways to work more effectively with your paraeducator. Intervention in School and Clinic, 36(4), 230-231.

Morrison H. J. & Gleddie, D. (2019). Playing on the same team: collaboration between teachers and educational assistants for inclusive physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 90(8), 34-41, DOI: 10.1080/07303084.2019.1644257

Together, teachers and educational assistants have an opportunity to ensure physical education (PE) is inclusive, accessible, and meaningful to all students. This article discusses collaboration for teaching inclusive PE (IPE), where students with disabilities participate within the context of the general PE environment with their peers. With the diversity we see in practitioners’ backgrounds, school contexts, and student populations, it can be difficult for them to “get on the same page” and work together without having a strategic plan. This article highlights a process for collaboration and suggests tasks for teachers and educational assistants to implement to achieve a collaborative approach to teaching and planning for IPE. It is essential for teachers and educational assistants to work through this plan and create an inclusive environment together to ensure appropriate and meaningful opportunities of IPE are being facilitated for students with disabilities. Specifically, this article discusses ways for teachers to better connect and work collaboratively with educational assistants in the IPE environment. Teachers and educational assistants can ensure the best IPE experiences by (1) starting the conversation, (2) unpacking experiences, (3) setting expectations, (4) discussing students, (5) planning for success, (6) pursuing professional development, and (7) engaging in collaborative reflection. Make time to communicate, build a relationship, support each other, and plan for successful IPE.

Nguyen O. (2015). Reaching out: extending collaboration and training to paraeducators. Revista Cientifica Hermes, 13(13), 180-200.

In the United States, special education paraeducators constitute a population of educators that provide integral services to our students with special needs. This population of educators is historically and currently poorly trained and supervised; yet, they work with the most challenging conditions and student population. Existing literature has unveiled a dismal state where the paraeducators job demands are increasing while their training and support remain relatively stagnant. An area where research has not highlighted as thoroughly is the impact of the dysfunctional, hierarchical system in which paraeducators operate. In essence, paraeducators are victims of a dysfunctional system that leaves them stagnant in their learning and in a position of marginalization. To begin including and valuing these individuals and thus improving our schools, practitioners must go back to the basics and increase the extent in which we demonstrate our appreciation of paraeducators by acknowledging and including them in more collaborative relationships and providing adequate training.

Palma G. M. (1994). Toward a positive and effective teacher and paraprofessional relationship. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 13(4), 46-48.

Discusses importance of paraprofessionals in rural special education. Suggests that positive teacher-paraprofessional relationships are obtained through valuing each other’s respective roles; giving credit where due; involving paraprofessionals in planning and decision making; showing paraprofessionals the why as well as the how of lessons; providing instructions using we and us, instead of you; providing verbal and nonverbal feedback.

Peltier C., Vannest, K.J. (2017). Using the concrete representational abstract (CRA) instructional framework for mathematics with students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 62(2), 73-82.

Mr. Buxton is a perplexed elementary mathematics teacher. He co-teaches a second-grade classroom, with Ms. Snyder. In their classroom they have 25 students; five are identified as academically at risk, and three receive special education services. In the past Mr. Buxton successfully used an instructional approach consisting of (a) modeling, (b) guided practice, (c) independent practice, and (d) formative assessment. Currently, students are struggling to subtract two- and three-digit numbers requiring regrouping. The co-teacher, Ms. Snyder, suggests that the students need more visuals and concrete examples during instruction.

Mrs. Zampelli teaches third grade in a general education classroom. She has support from the special education teacher and a paraeducator who provide consultation and instructional coaching. Of the 18 students in her class, nine have Individual Education Programs. The special education teacher, Mr. Ortiz, provides great suggestions to make learning “hands-on.” However, the concept of fractions and specifically comparing fractions with like numerators or denominators causes problems every year. Both teachers emphasize multiple representations (e.g., fraction cubes, fraction circles, fraction bars, number lines) of the concepts. Students are able to solve problems when working with manipulatives but struggle to solve problems in the abstract. Leading teammates suggest a more structured framework for incorporating manipulatives and representations.

Staples, K. (2013). Paraeducators transition from silent partners to collaborators with science teachers in urban middle schools. Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities, 17(1).

Within middle school classrooms a diverse body of students require specialized instruction and science teachers with unique abilities to implement a reform-based science curriculum. To achieve the goal of success for all, students who are English language learners and with exceptionalities, such as learning disabilities, and emotional and behavioral disorders, are often assigned paraeducators to support science learning. However, professional development often focuses on immersing paraeducators through a broad model of curricular modifications and general support strategies. This study reports findings of a three-year professional development project for middle level science teachers and paraeducators designed to increase science conceptual understanding and inquiry skills development. The overarching goals were to: 1) increase middle level science teachers ability to explain science concepts, and 2) develop paraeducator’s ability to directly assist in delivering inquiry-based science for students with Individualized Educational Plans identified with learning disabilities and emotional and behavioral disorders. A total of 13 science teachers collaborated with 11 paraeducators to identify practices impeding reform-based science instruction, address misconceptions, and modify delivery of instruction and assessment. The model for collaborating with science teachers enabled paraprofessionals to experience science as inquiry and expand their understanding of the vital role paraeducators have in supporting science learning. This mixed methods research design utilized data collected from the STEBI-A [and modified version for paraeducators], RTOP, and reflective journals to determine project impact. Analyses of the data reveal change in conceptual understanding, perceptions, and methodologies by which teachers and paraeducators collaborate to implement science instruction. The model demonstrates strategies for shifting the paradigm of paraeducators as silent partners to active participants in teaching inquiry-based science in middle schools.

Amos, B. A. (2008). Exploring communication between paraprofessional and teacher. Dissertation Abstracts International, 69 (05A), 145. (UMI No. AAI3307984)

Aragon L. (2003). Factors to consider when selecting paraprofessionals for participation in a teacher preparation program. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado at Denver.

Archibald, D. (2008). The roles and responsibilities of the Georgia special education paraprofessionals and the impact of the NCLB mandates: An assessment by Georgia administrators, special education teachers, and special education paraprofessionals. Doctoral Dissertation, Georgia Southern University.

Austin, K. (2013). Training needs of paraprofessionals supporting students with autism spectrum disorders. Doctoral Dissertation, Virginia Commonwealth University.

Bingham, M. A. (2005). The effect of paraeducator training on the promotion of augmentative communication by students with severe communication disabilities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 66 (01A), 86. (UMI No. AAI3162078)

Boudreau, J. A. (2011). Paraprofessionals as educators: differing perceptions, responsibilities, and training. Northeastern University, Doctoral Thesis.

Bourke, Patricia E. (2008) The experiences of teacher aides who support students with disabilities and learning difficulties: A phenomenological study. Queensland University of Technology, Doctoral Thesis

Boyle, A. (2019). Supporting paraeducators’ treatment integrity to behavior support plans through implementation planning. Doctoral Dissertations. 2200.

Treatment integrity is a critical component to fully understanding the relationship between implementation of evidence-based interventions and student outcomes. Research shows that school-based implementers require support beyond what is typically provided to consistently implement interventions with adequate levels of treatment integrity, and thus be more likely to achieve desired student outcomes. There are several implementation supports that have shown to be effective at increasing teachers’ levels of treatment integrity. One such support with emerging evidence is Implementation Planning. The present study, which employed a multiple-baseline across participants design, aimed to investigate the effects of providing Implementation Planning on paraeducators’ adherence to existing Behavior Support Plans. Across participant dyads, results revealed increases in adherence to “high” levels of implementation and improved student outcomes (i.e., increased academic engagement, decreased disruptive behavior) following the provision of implementation supports. A discussion of these findings, directions for future research and practice, and limitations to the current study are presented.

Bryan, R. R. (2009). The role of the paraeducator in the general physical education environment. Doctoral Dissertation, Oregon State University.

Buynak, M. E. (2014). Paraeducators’ perceptions of their responsibilities based on the Utah standards. All Theses and Dissertations. 4359

Castro, L. (2018). Effects of behavior management training with paraprofessionals in a special day class. Capstone Projects and Master’s Theses. 305.

Causton-Theoharis J. (2003). Increasing Interactions between students with severe disabilities and their peers via paraprofessional training. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Chopra R. V. (2002). Parent-paraeducator collaboration in inclusion: reality and issues. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado at Denver.

Christenson, A. M. (2013). A Systematic Analysis of Paraprofessional Job Expectations: Development of the Paraprofessional Survey of Expectations Tool (P-SET). Doctoral Dissertation, Minnesota State University.

Conti, A. M. (2004). A qualitative inquiry into the responsibilities and supports of paraeducators in special education. Dissertation Abstracts International, 65 (12A), 256. (UMI No. AAI3159330)

Curry, C. J. (2019). The current training practices and perceived training needs of special education assistants in Texas (2019). Ed.D. Dissertations. 321. https://commons.cu-portland.edu/edudissertations/321.

Cutts, S. (2010). Improving working relationships between special education teachers and paraprofessionals: development of a quick-reference guide for beginning special educators. Capstone Projects and Theses.

D’Aquanni M. M. (1997). The role of paraprofessionals in quality inclusive educational programs. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Syracuse University.

Devlin, P. A. (2002). The effect of continuous improvement training for teacher-paraprofessional teams on interaction and engagement of special education students in general education classrooms. Dissertation Abstracts International, 63 (09A), 125. (UMI No. AAI3065543)

Dover W. F. (2001). Instructional management of paraeducators in inclusive classrooms: The perspectives of the teachers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Kansas State University.

Doyle M. B. (1995). A qualitative inquiry into the roles and responsibilities of paraeducators who support students with sever disabilities in inclusive classrooms. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota.

Duran, L. K. (2008). An analysis of verbal interactions during dialogic reading with Spanish-speaking children enrolled in a Head Start home visiting program. Dissertation Abstracts International, 69 (01A), 112. (UMI No. AAI3295684)

[Flynn, A. R.] (2020). Positionality of paraeducators: A phenomenological study in a public school district in the Pacific Northwest. (Electronic Theses or Dissertation) Retrieved from https://etd.ohiolink.edu/.

Frantz, R.J. (2018). Coaching teaching assistants to implement naturalistic behavioral teaching strategies to enhance social communication skills during play in the preschool classroom. University of Oregon, The Office of Research, Innovation and Graduate Education, Theses and Dissertations.

Genzuk S. M. (1995). Integration factors affecting commitment to educational and occupational goals for latino paraeducators. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California.

Ghere, G. S. (2003). Employing, directing, and supporting paraprofessionals in inclusive education programs for students with disabilities: A multi-site case study. Dissertation Abstracts International, 64 (01A), 254. (UMI No. AAI3078016)

Hallmeeyer L. (2019). Positive behavior intervention support handbook for paraeducators. Theses, Dissertations, and Graduate Research / Special Education.

Hawkins, S. R. (2004). A study of the perceptions of special education teachers and paraeducators regarding the training of paraeducators (Washington, D.C.). Dissertation Abstracts International, 65 (08A), 82. (UMI No. AAI3142355)

Hogeweide, K. (2019). Preparing pre-service paraprofessionals to respond to young readers: a single-day workshop. Master of Education in Special Education. http://hdl.handle.net/10613/11499

Hsu, S (2007) Legislation, litigation, regulation, and implementation of paraprofessional supervision in school settings. All Theses and Dissertations. 831.

Johnson, W. A. (2018). Reframing the development of paraeducators: Examining the effects of purposeful planning and training with policy and leadership implications. Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I. (2136282035).

Keane, T. E. (2007). The relationship between paraprofessional job satisfaction and student academic and co-curricular success for secondary school students in special education. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68 (04A), 122. (UMI No. AAI3259837)

Kipfer, A. C. (2015). Educational assistants supporting inclusive education in secondary schools. Master Thesis, University of Western Ontario. . Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository. 3363.

Klein, E.F. (2006). Training Paraprofessionals to Facilitate Social Interactions Between Children with Autism and their Typically Developing Peers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68 (04A), 1409. (UMI AAI3263766)

Kuhn, K. K. (2018). Inclusive practices: a study of high school general education teacher and paraeducator collaborative partnerships. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Wichita State University.

Lanoux, F. (2007). Paraprofessionals: Instructional support in the elementary schools. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68 (11A), 261. (UMI No. AAI3289801)

Lavadenz M. C. (1994). Factors related to the teaching aspirations of chicano/latino paraprofessionals. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California.

Massafra, A. L. (2019). A qualitative investigation of preservice special education teacher programs’ preparation of preservice special education teachers to work with paraprofessionals. Dissertations. 561.

Milner C. A. (1998). Paraprofessionals in inclusive classrooms: Working without a net. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of North Dakota.

Mueller P. H. (1997). A study of the roles, training needs, and support needs of Vermont’s paraeducators. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Vermont.

Marjan N. (2019). The relationship between employee engagement and length of employment among special education paraprofessionals. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I.

Pacleb, L. G. (2019). Understanding the fundamentals of special education and the importance of paraprofessional roles: A paraprofessional training handbook. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I.

Parvey, M. C. (2008). Teacher assistants in classrooms and schools: Roles, collaboration, and responsibilities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 69 (02A), 178. (UMI No. AAI3303098)

Perez, J. C. (1998) Investigating the effects of a paraprofessional teaching sharing behaviors to young children with special needs in an inclusive kindergarten classroom. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (08A), 2928. (University Microfilms No. AAG99-00965)

Plagge, B. A. (1999). Dimensions of roles, responsibilities, training background and needs, policies, and procedures for paraeducators dealing with students with special needs. Dissertation Abstract International, 60, no. 12A

Prigge D. J. (1996). Supervising the special education paraprofessional in inclusionary settings. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Washington.

Reamer R. B. (1995). The effects of video self-modeling and self-assessment training on the delivery of instructional strategies provided by paraeducators working with children with developmental delays. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Houston.

Riggs C. G. (1996). Dimensions of the paraeducator experience: Facilitating the inclusion of children with identified special education needs in general education classes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Lesley College.

Robinson, S. E. (2007) Training Paraprofessionals of Students with Autism to Implement Pivotal Response Treatment Using a Video Feedback Training Package. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68 (10A), 4255. (UMI No. AAI3283763)

Rosness, L. D. (1998) Characteristics of successful paraeducator-to-teacher programs (Minority Teachers, Teacher Diversity). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (08A), 2934. (University Microfilms No. AAG99-00782)

Rudzroga, J. (2018). Why mindfullness matters: How mindfullness pf paraprofessionals affects personal and professional well-being. Electronic version published by Vancouver Island University.

Rutherford, G. (2008). Different ways of knowing? Understanding disabled students’ and teacher aides’ school experiences within a context of relational social justice. Doctoral dissertation. University of Otago, Dunedin, NZ.

Saccoccio, C. (2018). The para predicament: investigating the intersectionality of race, disability, and paraeducator assignment. Doctoral Dissertations. 1741.

Sandoval-Lucero E.M. (2004). The role of self-efficacy in paraeducators’ career decisions. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado at Denver.

Schneider, G. (2018). The unsung heroes and silent partners of the educational world. Dissertations. 197.

Schonewise E. A. (2001). The current training practices and perceived training needs of paraprofessionals in special education programs in Nebraska. Dissertation Abstracts International, 62 (05A), 228. (UMI No. AAI3015853)

Simpson, L. A. (2008). Social facilitation as a clinical intervention for children with nonverbal learning disability and Asperger’s Disorder: A theory review. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68 (12B), 253. (UMI No. AAI3294297)

Skulina, J. A. (2003). Paraprofessionals in general education environments: A comparison of parent perceptions and classroom observations. Dissertation Abstracts International, 64 (02A), 163. (UMI No. AAI3079390)

Slider, N. J. (2004). Cost effective and sequential methods for teaching educational paraprofessionals to implement behavior management strategies in preschool classrooms. Dissertation Abstracts International, 65 (10A), 105. (UMI No. AAI3151852)

Smith, H. (2007). Why do they go? Reasons for the attrition of paraeducators working with high school students having severe disabilities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 68 (10A), 158. (UMI No. AAI3283778)

Smith S. D. (2000). From paraprofessional to credentialed teacher: Motivational factors that influence career pathways in special education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of San Francisco.

Stallings C.F. (2000). The identification of paraprofessional training needs within the context of inclusive education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. North Carolina State University.

Stieg, C. D. (2019). Training and supervision of paraprofessionals in special education: a qualitative case study. All Theses And Dissertations. 191. https://dune.une.edu/theses/191

Stratton, P. C. (2014). Paraprofessional perceptions of training and professional development. Theses, Dissertations and Capstones. Paper 891. Marshall University.

Sullivan, J. P. (1995) The relationship between the actual role and ideal role of paraprofessionals in secondary schools. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of San Francisco

Sullivan, K. O. (1998) Meeting the challenge of paraprofessional training: An application of the competence model. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (02B), 0889. (University Microfilms No. AAG98-24803)

Swenson, T. G. (2020). Examining the role frequency, ability, and training needs of paraeducators supporting students with disabilities in physical education settings. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Tindall, D. W. S. (2005). The effects of three knowledge interventions on novice volunteer tutors’ teaching performance with children with developmental disabilities in a motor development lab setting. Dissertation Abstracts International, 66 (05A), 101. (UMI No. AAI3175999)

Theodotou, J (2018). Educational Assistants and classroom management: Increasing self-efficacy. School of Education Student Capstone Projects. 155.

Torres R. L. (1998) Meeting the demands for quality teachers: A case study of bilingual paraprofessional-to-bilingual-teacher training program. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Colorado at Boulder.

True J. (2016) From para-educators to veteran master teachers: evaluation of special educators’ perceived experiences of school district and university partnership programs. Unpublished Doctoral Dessertation, John Hopkins University.

Wallace T. L. (1997). The role of paraprofessionals in effective transition programs. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Minnesota.

Walters-Remaly, M. A. (2003). A study of essential characteristics of paraeducators who work with students with severe/profound cognitive and/or multiple disabilities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 64 (03A), 346. (UMI No. AAI3085107)

Ward, D. L. (2000). An investigation of the role of paraeducators with students with mild disabilities. Dissertation Abstract International, 61, no. 09A

Wenzel, J. D. (2019). Training job coaches in systematic methods of instruction. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I. (2231164984).

Werts M. G. (1998) Child academic engagement related to proximity of paraprofessionals. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. University of Pittsburgh.

Whiting, A. (2014). Training paraeducators to use behavior management strategies: implementation and evaluation of a brief targeted Intervention. All Graduate Plan B and other Reports. 446.

Wiese, B. J. (2004). Knowledge and skills for the utilization and supervision of paraeducators across Iowa: Trends in special education teacher preparation and inservice needs. Dissertation Abstracts International, 65 (07A), 153. (UMI No. AAI3139406)

Winstead, R. A. (2013). The road from paraprofessional to certified teacher: a state, school district, and university partnership. Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 2297. http://dc.etsu.edu/etd/2297. East Tennessee State University.

Woodman, D. (2019). Middle school paraprofessionals describing their experiences teaching students in inclusive classroom: a case study. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I. (2228854125).

Appl, D. (2006). First-year early childhood special education teachers and their assistants: “Teaching along with her.” Teaching Exceptional Children. 38, 34-40.

Cathy, Kelly, and Lisa are early childhood special education (ECSE) teachers in inclusive, classroom-based programs. Each of them worked with assistant teachers during their first year as ECSE teachers, and that experience resulted in difficulties of varying degrees. For Cathy, those difficulties were most profound. During her first months of teaching, she expressed feelings of isolation in spite of having an assistant in her classroom. In a telephone interview (11/01/97), she said, “I’m by myself . . . It’s like [I] don’t have anyone to talk to.” When asked about her assistant, she replied, “When I am talking to her, I’m usually trying to explain things, not to get suggestions.”

Banerjee, R., Chopra, R. V., DiPalma, G. (2017). Early intervention paraprofessional standards: development and field validation. Journal of Early Intervention, 39(4), 359-370.

Personnel standards are the foundations for how states and nations approve a program, engage in systemic assessment, and provide effective professional development to its early childhood professionals. However, despite the extensive use of paraprofessionals in early intervention/early childhood special education programs, there is a lack of national- and state-level guidance for training paraprofessionals. This article presents the process followed for development and validation of statewide personnel standards for paraprofessionals who work in early intervention settings and the results of this validation study. The development and validation process for these new knowledge and skills competencies followed the process used by Division for Early Childhood and the Council for Exceptional Children for development and validation of personnel standards and K-12 special education paraeducator professional development standards. Challenges, limitations, and future directions are discussed.

Bolton, J., & Mayer, M. D. (2008). Promoting the generalization of paraprofessional discrete trial teaching skills. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 23 (2), 103-111.

This study investigated the effectiveness of a brief staff training procedure aimed at promoting the generalization of accurate implementation of discrete trial instruction from the training environment to the teaching environment. Three bachelor’s-level paraprofessionals received classroom training using a training package that included didactic instruction, modeling, general case instruction, and practice with specific performance feedback. Participants were required to meet performance criteria of 98% accuracy or better to exit training. After successfully completing the training program, participants were followed into the treatment environment and shown to maintain a high level of treatment integrity in implementing varied discrete trial programs with children in early intervention and school-age services for periods of up to 23 weeks.

Chopra, R., Banerjee, R., DiPalma, G., Merrill, L., & Ferguson, A. (2013). Colorado’s model for preparing paraprofessionals for rural early intervention programs. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 32 (1), 20-28.

Under the supervision of a licensed early intervention provider, paraprofessionals play an indispensable role in the implementation of home and community-based services to infants and toddlers with developmental delays or disabilities and their families in Colorado. This article shares an example of a statewide model of preparation and training for early intervention paraprofessionals. The outcomes achieved, lessons learned and next steps in the implementation of the model are also presented.

Douglas, S. N., Light, J. C., McNaughton, D. B (2013). Teaching paraeducators to support the communication of young children with complex communication needs. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 33(2), 91-101.

Paraeducators are frequent communication partners for young children with complex communication needs (CCN) in early childhood settings. This study examined the impact of instruction to paraeducators in two communication interaction strategies (IPLAN - Identify activities for communication, Provide means for communication, Locate and provide vocabulary, Arrange environment, use iNteraction strategies and MORE - Model AAC, Offer opportunities for communication, Respond to communication, Extend communication) on the number of communication opportunities provided by paraeducators during play activities with young children with CCN. Results of the study provide evidence that after 2 hr of one-on-one training, paraeducators increased the number of communication opportunities they provided for children with CCN, and children with CCN took an increased number of communication turns. In addition, paraeducators reported that they found the training beneficial, and the supervising teachers noted improvements in the communication support provided by the paraeducators. Limitations and future research directions are discussed.

Douglas, S. N., McNaughton, D. B, Light, J. C. (2014). Online training for paraeducators to support the communication of young children. Journal of Early Intervention, 35(3), 223-242.

Paraeducators are frequent sources of support for young children with disabilities in early childhood settings. However, they typically have limited training in providing communication opportunities for children with complex communication needs (CCN). The impact was investigated of providing training in a communication interaction strategy to three paraeducators working with young children with diagnoses of autism and developmental delay. The training included interactive online components as well as opportunities to use and ask questions about the strategy, and reflection on strategy use. After participating in the training activities, the paraeducators were observed to provide a greater number of appropriate communication opportunities during play interactions with the young children. The children with CCN also showed increases in the number of communication acts performed. In addition, paraeducator responses (including comments on child behaviors) increased. Results of social validity and generalization measures are reported. Limitations of the study are also discussed.

Fiechtl, B. J., Hager, K. D. (2019). A statewide early childhood alternative teacher preparation program delivered via synchronous video conference. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 38(4) 210–216.

This article describes a statewide online alternative teacher preparation program in early childhood special education. The history and evolution of the program is explained along with the programmatic changes that resulted from working with noncertified teachers with a wide variety of backgrounds in both rural and urban districts. Challenges and solutions for providing coursework and supervision via distance to all areas of a state will be presented.

Gray, C., McCloy, S., Dunbar, C. (2007). Added value or a familiar face?: the impact of learning support assistants on young readers. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 5(3), 285-300.

As the number of learning support assistants (also referred to as classroom assistants, teaching aides, auxiliary support and paraeducators) employed in the primary sector continues to increase, questions concerning the contribution they make to raising standards of attainment remain to be answered. This article reports evidence from a small-scale study undertaken to evaluate the impact learning support assistants have on the reading attainment of young children taught in schools using a whole class systematic phonics approach. A matched sample test/retest approach was employed to examine differences in the reading performance of pupils who did and did not receive additional reading support. Whilst overall, pupils exposed to the whole class systematic phonics approach showed a significant improvement in reading performance, no added value was noted for pupils receiving learning support assistance. On the contrary, the results suggest that learning support may have a detrimental impact on lower ability readers. Contradictions between the empirical findings and the views of teachers are discussed here.

Hughes, M. T., Valle-Riestra, D. M. (2008). Responsibilities, preparedness, and job satisfaction of paraprofessionals working with young children with disabilities. International Journal of Early Years Education, 16(2), 163-173.

To support teachers with their classroom responsibilities, schools have increasingly turned to paraprofessionals for assistance, with the largest numbers of paraprofessionals employed in the field of special education. Owing to this important role that paraprofessionals now perform in the education of children with disabilities in the USA, we set out to investigate the responsibilities that paraprofessionals working with young children with disabilities had. We were also interested in identifying how paraprofessionals and the teachers with whom they work alongside perceived the paraprofessionals’ level of preparedness for their roles and their job satisfaction. Fifty-two paraprofessionals and 59 teachers of young children with disabilities participated in the study. Overall, both paraprofessionals and teachers indicated that paraprofessionals were generally well prepared for activities they frequently engaged in and both viewed themselves as collaborative members of an educational team.

Inbar-Furst, H., Douglas, S. N., Meadan, M. (2020). Promoting caregiver coaching practices within early intervention: reflection and feedback. Early Childhood Education Journal, 48,(1), 21-27.

Family-centered practices are a hallmark of early intervention (EI). Early intervention service providers are expected to engage in practices that emphasize family strengths, promote family choice and control, and develop collaborative relationships between professionals and families. In 2014 the Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children released a series of revised recommended practices for the field of EI and early childhood special education. The seven topic strands include: assessment, environment, family, instruction, interaction, teaming and collaboration, and transition. This paper addresses practices under multiple topic strands including instruction and family. The purpose of this manuscript is to present strategies that: (a) encourage caregiver reflection—a critical, yet challenging, component of coaching, (b) guide service providers in providing feedback to the caregiver, and (c) enhance service providers use of self-reflection.

Killoran, J., Templeman, T. P., Peters, J., Udell, T.** (2001). Identifying paraprofessional competencies for early intervention and early childhood special education. Teaching Exceptional Children, 31(1), 68-73.

This article identifies competencies needed by paraprofessionals working in early childhood special education including ways to document various mastery levels. It describes use of the competencies in Oregon’s early childhood special education personnel development program. It explains the process used to identify needed competencies and also reports on a survey of 64 paraprofessionals of their perceived training needs. (Contains references.) (DB)

Lane, K.L., Fletcher, T., Carter, E., Dejud, Delorenzo J. (2007). Paraprofessional-led phonological awareness training with youngsters at-risk for reading and behavioral concerns. Remedial and Special Education, 28 (5), 266-276.

This study examined the efficacy of a paraprofessional-led supplemental early intervention for first-grade students with poor early literacy skills and behavioral concerns. The goal was to determine if (a) the relatively brief intervention was effective in improving phonological skills, and (b) improvements in academic skills would be accompanied by behavioral and social improvements. The results indicated that the students in the treatment condition experienced significant, lasting increases in phonological awareness and moderate improvement in word attack skills. However, significant collateral effects on social and behavioral performance were not observed. Limitations and directions for future investigation are offered.

Major, S.O., Seabra-Santos, M.J., Gaspar, M.F. (2018). Preschool teachers and classroom aides: Same context, similar perceptions of children’s behaviors? Psychology in the Schools, 55(7), 801-814.

This study explored the correspondence and differences between school staff perceptions of preschool children’s social skills and behavior problems. One hundred preschoolers were assessed by 14 pairs of teachers and classroom aides with the Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales – 2nd Edition (PKBS‐2 Portuguese version). Indexes of agreement and disagreement were calculated. Risk levels and item analyses of PKBS‐2 scores according to both informants’ ratings were compared. A higher level of agreement was obtained for social skills scores than for behavior problems (mean correlation of .62). No statistically significant differences between informants were obtained for the risk levels, and item analyses revealed a similar pattern of behaviors that were most and least rated by both informants. Results indicate that the classroom aides’ perspective on preschool assessment represents a reliable input, which justifies that they network with teachers in addressing preschoolers’ social‐emotional and behavioral challenges.

Nelson, J.R. Sanders, E.A., Gonzalez, J. (2009). The efficacy of supplemental early literacy instruction by community-based tutors for preschoolers enrolled in Head Start. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 3(1), 1-25.

The purpose of the current study was to test the efficacy of a supplemental phonological awareness focused intervention delivered by community-based paraeducators with preschool children (M = 4.73 years) in eight Head Start classrooms in the rural Midwest. Participating children were randomly assigned to small groups within classrooms, which were in turn were randomly assigned to receive either treatment or control (vocabulary-focused storybook reading) instruction in small groups for 20 min/day, 5 days/week, for 10 weeks (February–April). All instruction was delivered by community-based paraeducator tutors. At posttest, treatment students (n = 41) outperformed controls (n = 47) on measures of alphabetic knowledge (d = 1.22) and phonological awareness (d = .62). No significant differences between conditions were detected on print awareness or vocabulary. Overall, the results demonstrate that at-risk preschoolers benefit from community-based paraeducator implemented supplemental phonological awareness and alphabetic knowledge instruction.

Paris, R., & Bronson, M. (2006). A home-based intervention for immigrant and refugee trauma survivors: Paraprofessionals working with high-risk mothers and infants. Zero to Three, 27(2), 37-45.

This article describes how the Visiting Moms Program in Chelsea, Massachusetts, has taken the paraprofessional model one step further to respond to the needs of refugee and immigrant new mothers, by employing paraprofessional home visitors who are also immigrants or refugees themselves from countries in Central America, South America, and Africa (e.g., Brazil, El Salvador, Sudan, Somalia, and Morocco). This home visiting intervention, located at the Massachusetts General Hospital Chelsea HealthCare Center, demonstrates how paraprofessionals who are also mothers and closely connected to their communities can work effectively with families with multiple risk factors, including trauma. With extensive training and close supervision by a senior clinician and program administrator, the resources of a well-coordinated community health team and outstanding health center, these multilingual/bicultural home visitors provide emotional support, client advocacy within the service system, and education on child development for low income, high-risk immigrant/refugee families.

Rayer S.A. Hester, P., Michalek, A.M.P., Cho, D., Anthony, N. (2013). Impact of an activity mini-schedule on the inattention of preschoolers with cochlear implants during a group activity. Education and Treatment of Children, 36(2), 15-32.

This pilot study evaluated the effectiveness of using an activity mini-schedule which divided a circle time activity into four sub-activities with four preschoolers who were deaf and had received cochlear implants. Often preschoolers with cochlear implants display difficulty directing attention to appropriate stimuli during large group activities (Chute & Nevins, 2003). It was hypothesized that the use of an activity mini-schedule would decrease inattention. Using a multiple baseline design across participants, an activity mini-schedule was introduced to each participant sequentially by a paraeducator who sat behind the children during circle time. Participants’ behaviors were videotaped and coded. The introduction of an activity mini-schedule decreased inattention in all participants, yet individual outcomes varied. Although this study offers some evidence that activity mini-schedules may positively impact attention in young children, more research is needed.

Rosenberg, S. A., Robinson, C., Fryer, E. G. (2002). Evaluation of paraprofessional home visiting services for children with special needs and their families. Teacher Education and Special Education, 22(3), 158-168.

This study evaluated the impact of supportive paraprofessional home visiting on mothers and their young children who had or were at risk for developmental disabilities and who were at risk for receiving inadequate parenting. Families were randomly assigned to intervention and comparison groups. Upon exit, mothers in the intervention group rated services as more helpful and demonstrated moderately better mental health than did mothers in the comparison group. Children in the intervention group were more likely to have received an Individualized Family Service Plan. The two groups did not differ in the quality of their home environments, service utilization, or child outcomes. The results of these findings are discussed in terms of the need for direct training of parents and the characteristics of families who can benefit most from the services that paraprofessionals provide.

Serna R.W., Foran, M.M., Cooke, C., Hurd, K.E., Tello, A.J., Vangapalli, R.,Hamad, C.D. (2016). Teaching discrete trial training: the effects of asynchronous computer-based instruction on live implementation. Journal of Special Education Technology, 31(1), 39-49.

The present study asked whether naive learners would accurately implement discrete trial training (DTT) methods in a live setting following asynchronous training delivered entirely via computer. Seven naive adult participants received training from portions of a previously developed online program that were relevant to DTT implementation. A unique feature of the training was the use of simulated interaction exercises with an on-screen virtual child. The dependent measure was the accuracy with which participants taught simple skills to an experimental confederate using DTT. A multiple baseline across participants design showed that the computer-based training resulted in accurate live DTT implementation for all participants. Most participants also demonstrated accurate DTT teaching with a novel task. The implications of the study results are discussed in terms of their potential impact on the shortage of trained practitioners of early behavioral intervention methods.

Vadasy P.F. Nelson, R.J., Sanders, E.A. (2013). Longer term effects of a tier 2 kindergarten vocabulary intervention for English learners. Remedial and Special Education, 34(2), 91-101.

This study examines the longer term effectiveness of a standard protocol, Tier 2 supplemental vocabulary intervention for kindergarten English learners, designed to develop root word vocabulary knowledge and reinforce beginning word reading skills. Participating students in the original study (n = 93 treatment, 92 control) received 20 weeks of small group instruction from paraeducator tutors during kindergarten. After attrition, students (n = 74 treatment, 66 control) were followed up midyear Grade 1 on English measures of proximal and distal vocabulary as well as word reading. At 6 months post intervention, the treatment benefits were maintained on all three outcomes, and furthermore, there was no evidence to suggest that early receptive vocabulary knowledge moderated longer term treatment effects. Results also showed kindergarten intervention year gains in proximal (i.e., root word) vocabulary uniquely predicted midyear Grade 1 distal vocabulary above and beyond kindergarten gains in distal vocabulary. Implications for English learner early intervention are discussed.

Vadasy P.F. Sanders, E.Z. (2010). Efficacy of supplemental phonics-based instruction for low-skilled kindergarteners in the context of language minority status and classroom phonics instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(4), 786-803.

This study tested the efficacy of supplemental phonics instruction for 84 low-skilled language minority (LM) kindergarteners and 64 non-LM kindergarteners at 10 urban public schools. Paraeducators were trained to provide the 18-week (January–May) intervention. Students performing in the bottom half of their classroom language group (LM and non-LM) were randomly assigned either to individual supplemental instruction (treatment) or to classroom instruction only (control). Irrespective of their language status, treatment students ( n = 67) significantly outperformed controls (n = 81) at post-test in alphabetics, word reading, spelling, passage reading fluency, and comprehension (average treatment d = 0.83); nevertheless, LM students tended to have lower posttest performance than non-LM students (average LM d = −0.30) and were significantly less responsive to treatment on word reading. When we examined the contribution of classroom phonics time to student outcomes, we found that the treatment effect on spelling was greater for students in lower phonics classrooms, whereas the treatment effect on comprehension was greater for those in higher phonics classrooms. Finally, when we examined LM students alone, we found that pre-test English receptive vocabulary positively predicted most post-tests and interacted with treatment only on phonological awareness. In general, pretest vocabulary did not moderate kindergarten LM treatment response.

Vadasy P.F., Sanders. E.A., Peyton, J.A. (2006). Paraeducator-supplemented instruction in structural analysis with text reading practice for second and third graders at risk for reading problems. Remedial and Special Education, 27(6), 365-378.

Two studies—one quasi-experimental and one randomized experiment—were designed to evaluate the effectiveness of supplemental instruction in structural analysis and oral reading practice for second- and third-grade students with below-average word reading skills. Individual instruction was provided by trained paraeducators in single- and multiletter phoneme—grapheme correspondences; structural analysis of inflected, affixed, and multi-syllable words; exception word reading; and scaffolded oral reading practice. Both studies revealed short-term word level and fluency effects.

Waters, C. L. (2019). Covering the bases: pairing sign with spoken word in early childhood settings. Young Exceptional Children.

Mrs. Gaines, who holds a dual credential in early childhood and early childhood special education, teaches in an inclusive preschool classroom serving children and families from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. At the beginning of the school year, all 15 children in Mrs. Gaines’ classroom sit around a large oval rug as she leads the morning circle time routine by singing familiar songs and clapping to the rhythm. One paraeducator, Mr. Lopez, writes observations, while another paraeducator, Ms. Wilson, models circle time expectations. Most children follow along with Mrs. Gaines’ singing and clapping, while some children engage in other ways. For example, Min Joon voices the beginning sounds of familiar lyrics and rocks his body back and forth. Another child, Julieta, remains silent as her hands rest in her lap and she gazes at peers. A third child, Draymond, listens carefully to the song lyrics as he leans toward Mrs. Gaines, cupping his left hand behind his ear.

After circle time, Mrs. Gaines, Mr. Lopez, and Ms. Wilson discuss their observations. Mr. Lopez expresses concern that some children, including Min Joon, Julieta, and Draymond, may not understand the circle time routine. The team identifies that spoken communication may limit opportunities for all children to fully participate in circle time, as well as other parts of the daily routine. Mrs. Gaines then calls the speech therapist, Mrs. Yamada, and invites her to observe during afternoon circle time. After lunch, the children find their seats on the oval rug and begin the afternoon circle time routine, and Mrs. Yamada comes into the classroom to observe in hopes to identify strategies the team can implement to support participation for all children.

Abbate-Vaughn, J. (2007). Paraprofessionals left behind? Urban paraprofessionals’ beliefs about their work in the midst of NCLB. Journal of Poverty, 11(4),k 143-164.

Paraprofessionals are often overlooked, but key participants in the optimal functioning of schools. In light of the pending changes and increasing demands regarding paraprofessional qualifications stipulated by the No Child Left Behind Act, this pilot study focuses on paraprofessionals’ beliefs about their work in a diverse urban setting. The participants cite their own experiences with motherhood and insiders’ understanding of diverse communities as the most compelling skills they bring to their jobs. Implications for policy-making that address the worth of “life experiences” and cultural diversity as an asset for those who work in urban, highly diverse school settings are offered.

Allen M., & Ashbaker, B. Y. (2004). Strengthening schools: Involving paraprofessionals in crisis prevention and intervention. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39(3), 139-146.

Two important questions arise when creating a school crisis plan: (a) Who should be trained as part of the crisis team? and (b) What type of training will be the most effective and practical? The authors suggest that paraprofessionals are a valuable resource to consider for assisting with crisis prevention and intervention. Practical suggestions are made for preparing paraprofessionals to assist in this role.

Appl, D. (2006). First-year early childhood special education teachers and their assistants: “Teaching along with her.” Teaching Exceptional Children. 38, 34-40.

Ashbaker, B. Y., & Morgan J. (2006). Paraprofessionals in the classroom. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.

Ashbaker B.Y., Morgan, J. (2001). Paraeducators: a powerful human resource. Streamlined Seminar, 19(2), 1-6.

Paraeducators were first introduced into American classrooms in response to teacher shortages during the early years of the post-World War II baby boom. Today, they are major participants in the delivery of education and special services, from early childhood through high school, for children with and without disabilities, and for those who speak English as a first or second language, especially in inclusive classrooms. Rural and small schools, which often have limited resources and difficulty attracting highly qualified teachers, are particularly dependent on paraeducators, whose roles and responsibilities have become increasingly complex in recent years. Although they enjoy an important role in American education, their rapid growth has given rise to a number of concerns: many paraeducators spend up to 50 percent of their time providing instruction to individual students with no teacher present; many currently lack formal (or even informal) training and a recognized place within the school, despite the fact that they may have as many as 20 or even 30 years of classroom experience. Paraeducators often are hired the day that school starts, have no formal job description, have no mailbox to receive school information, and are generally excluded from inservice or orientation training offered to the professional staff. This article offers ways in which principals can show paraeducators that they recognize the valuable contribution they make to schools, like providing mailboxes and including them in internal mailings, including them in faculty meetings, including them in parent-teacher conferences, providing time for teachers and paraeducators to plan their work together, and orienting paraeducators hired during the school year.

Ashbaker B. & Morgan, J. (2000, January). Bilingual paraeducators: What we can learn from Rosa. NASSP Bulletin, 84(612), 53-56.

Hiring increasing numbers of paraeducators can provide additional learning support and a linguistic/cultural link to the community. However, such personnel may have frenetic schedules, responsibilities divided among several schools, and inadequate supervision and communication links. Recommendations for principals, teachers, and bilingual coordinators are provided. (MLH)

Ashbaker B.Y., & Morgan, J. (2001). Growing roles for teachers’ aides. Education Digest, 66(7), 60-65.

This article describes the development of and directions for using a 16-item screening tool designed to assist crossstakeholder school teams in determining the extent to Which they may be overreliant on special education paraprofessionals or using them inappropriately. The content of the tool is based on contemporary, descriptive research regarding paraprofessionals in inclusive schools. Additionally, the article describes the field-testing of the screening tool in 27 schools (Grades K—12) in six states. Findings suggest that all 16 screening items represent substantial concerns that interfere With the delivery of high-quality inclusive schooling. Implications for practice are discussed.

Belote, M. (2019). The state of interveners in the state of California: a 2019 update. reSources, 24(1), 1-6.

Interveners are paraeducators who have specialized knowledge and skills specific to deafblindness. Their primary role is to provide access — to the curriculum, to communication, to the environment, to peers, to the world. The term intervener is not new, nor are the roles and responsibilities of interveners. There have been interveners for decades, perhaps even centuries. In fact Anne Sullivan Macy, most famous for being Helen Keller’s first teacher, slowly transitioned from being Helen’s teacher to being Helen’s intervener, as Helen Keller reached adulthood and her service needs changed and grew. And it is important to note that not all children and youth who are deafblind require the services of interveners and the need for intervener services may vary throughout the school day or throughout a student’s educational career. This article will focus on educational interveners but interveners are often necessary throughout the lives of individuals who are deafblind in order for deafblind people to be actively engaged in all aspects of life.

Bennett, M., Ng-Knight, T., Hayes, B. (2016). Autonomy-supportive teaching and its antecedents: differences between teachers and teaching assistants and the predictive role of perceived competence, European Journal of Psychology of Education, DOI 10.1007/s10212-016-0321-x.

Research predicated on self-determination theory (SDT) has established a positive relationship between autonomy-supportive teaching and a range of desired student outcomes. Therefore, the enhancement of autonomy-supportive teaching is a legitimate focus of efforts to improve student outcomes. In this study, we compared self-reported levels of autonomy-supportive teaching amongst different educational professionals and explored the relationships between four hypothesised antecedents of autonomy support: constraints at work, perceived competence for teaching, perceptions of students’ autonomous motivation towards school and autonomous motivation for teaching. Questionnaire data from 429 teachers and teaching assistants (TAs) working in schools in the United Kingdom (UK) revealed that teachers report significantly more autonomy-supportive teaching than do TAs. Structural equation modelling indicated that the more teachers feel competent, the more their teaching is autonomy-supportive. Amongst a range of other significant findings, teachers, but not TAs, who experience fewer constraints at work are more autonomously motivated towards teaching. The findings suggest that differences in autonomy-supportive teaching may account, at least in part, for the differential impact of teachers and TAs on academic progress as revealed by recent large-scale research in the UK. Furthermore, they identify social-contextual variables that should be considered when attempting to promote autonomy-supportive teaching and educators’ motivation towards teaching.

Benshoff J.J., Eckert, J.M., Riggar, T.F., & Taylor, D.W. (1995). Parameters of paraprofessionalism: Exploring the myths and realities associated with paraprofessionals in rehabilitation settings. Journal of Rehabilitation Administration, 19, 133-143.

Benshoff and others explore misconceptions about the inservice training needs, continuing education, supervision, and evaluation of rehabilitation paraprofessionals. A response by Emener draws distinctions between professionals and paraprofessionals. (SK)

Bernstorf, E. D. (2001). Paraprofessionals in music settings. Music Educators Journal, 87 (4), 36-40.

Focuses on using paraprofessionals to work with special needs students within the music education classroom. Discusses the types of paraprofessionals, ways of using paraprofessionals in a music setting, and how to include the paraprofessional by highlighting roles they can fill. (CMK)

Black S. (2002, May). Not just helping hands. American School Board Journal, 189(5), 42-44.

Based on recent research and data on paraprofessionals, this article describes the roles paraprofessionals play in schools and builds an argument for career ladders that help them become teachers. The number of paraprofessionals in public schools has grown faster than the number of teachers. When properly trained, supervised, and supported paraprofessionals can successfully contribute to student achievement and their work is an excellent training ground for future teachers. In fact many of them do want to become teachers but need support to enter school and complete their degrees. Research is cited that indicates paraprofessional career ladder programs are a good investment for schools districts and that paraprofessionals could help ease the current teacher shortage.

Blodgett E. G. & Miller, J.M. (1996). Speech-language paraprofessionals working in Kentucky Schools. Journal of Children’s Communication Development, 18(1), 65-79.

The roles of SLPs associated with a medical model have now shifted to a role more tailored for the educational model.

Brown, T. S. & Stanton-Chapman, T. L. (2014). Experiences of paraprofessionals in US preschool special education and general education classrooms. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 17(1), 18-30.

A substantial challenge confronting public education systems across the world is the employment and retention of high-quality paraprofessionals (also known as teaching assistants and educational assistants). The current study expands upon previous research by employing a mixed methods design to examine the relationship between paraprofessionals’ perceptions of their responsibilities and the corresponding satisfaction and issues relating to their job in the USA. Analytic induction through the generation of themes was used to analyse the qualitative data and revealed that paraprofessionals perceive or demonstrate issues relating to three primary domains: confusion of responsibilities in different contexts, relational power dynamics between paraprofessionals and teachers, and satisfaction based on both monetary compensation and recognition. In addition to the qualitative findings, researchers designed the paraprofessional perception survey, a quantitative survey measuring the concept of paraprofessional perceptions relating to their job. Results from the survey analysis revealed similar findings across domains. Additional results, practice implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Brown L., Farrington, K., Ziegler, M., Knight, T., & Ross, C. (1999). Fewer paraprofessionals and more teachers and therapists in educational programs for students with significant disabilities. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24(4), 249-252.

This article describes what other studies have found to be problems with the employment of paraeducators in educational settings. It also makes recommendations for eleven specific things that can be accomplished by paraeducators and recommends that we need to increase the number of paraeducators working in schools, not decrease them.

Bryan, R. B., McCubbin, J., & van der Mars, H. (2013). The ambiguous role of the paraeducator in the general physical education environment. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 29, 164-183.

The use of paraeducators has increased as a main mechanism to include more students with disabilities in the public schools in the U.S. Although the utilization of paraeducators is intended to be a supportive service delivery option, many concerns and challenges have resulted. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of the paraeducator in the general physical education environment from the perspectives of special education, physical education, and adapted physical education teachers and paraeducators. Data were collected from a phenomenological approach using questionnaires, interviews, and observations. Results indicate concerns about the clarity of the role of the paraeducator in physical education. Emerging themes include elastic definitions of student protection and teacher backup, contradictory expectations and mixed acceptance, and paraeducators’ role ambiguity. Findings regarding the role of the paraeducator are essential in determining both best practice and legal policy for the appropriate utilization of paraeducators in physical education.

Butler, P. (2019). Understanding the invisible workforce: Education support personnel’s roles, needs and the challenges they face. City TBD: Education International.

Education Support Personnel play a vital role in realising the right to education and ensuring quality education for all. They contribute to fostering positive, safe learning environments, and ensuring that schools and, indeed, all educational institutions function effectively for all students. Yet we don’t know enough about this diverse group of workers, whose roles range from bus drivers to counsellors, administrators to teaching assistants, and many more. Who are ESP? What kind of working conditions do they have? What challenges do they face? This research, launched on World ESP Day 2019, seeks to better understand this too often invisible workforce.

Butt, R. (2016). Employment procedures and practices challenge teacher assistants in mainstream schools. School Leadership & Management, 36(1), 63-79. 

Reliance on teacher assistants (TAs) in mainstream schools to support students with disability and learning difficulties is an increasing trend in Australia. In 2011, over 80,000 TAs were employed costing approximately $3billion per annum — DEEWR. 2012. Job Outlook. Accessed June 2013. http://joboutlook.gov.au/default.aspx. This paper reports on the employment procedures and practices that affect TAs working in four mainstream schools in Australia. Using data gathered from a qualitative case study conducted over three years, the study found that TAs and teachers have minimal understanding of the TA role. In addition, TAs have limited understanding of employer expectations, education department system policies, the TA career structure and school policies. Existing procedures and practices, both at the education department system level and at the individual school level, exclude TAs from accessing information afforded to other school staff. As a result, TAs work alone and often fail to provide effective support to both students and teachers. It is recommended that school leaders improve employment conditions for TAs at both system and school levels to ensure that students and teachers receive maximum benefit from employing TAs.

Butt, R. (2016). Teacher assistant support and deployment in mainstream schools. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 20(9), 995-1007.

Models of support for students with disability and learning difficulties in mainstream classes in Australia rely extensively on teacher assistants (TAs). Current models, however, inadvertently perpetuate low expectations because providing TA support can be one of the most restrictive supports offered in a school — Giangreco, M. F. 2010a. “One-to-One Paraprofessionals for Students with Disabilities in Inclusive Classrooms: Is Conventional Wisdom Wrong?” Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 48 (1): 1–13; Etscheidt, S. 2005. “Paraprofessional Services for Students with Disabilities: A Legal Analysis of Issues.” Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities 30(2): 60–80. In addition, the increasing instructional role of TAs in the classroom is concerning. Negative outcomes for students where TAs provide support have been noted — Giangreco, M. F., J. C. Suter, and M. B. Doyle. 2010. “Paraprofessionals in Inclusive Schools: A Review of Recent Research.” Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation 20: 41–57; Webster, R., P. Blatchford, and A. Russell. 2010. “Should Teaching Assistants Have a Pedagogical Role? Lessons Following the DISS Project.” Paper Presented at the BERA annual conference, September 1–4, University of Warwick, UK. A qualitative case study was conducted in an Australia city over three years across four primary school sites to identify the issues and propose possible solutions. The study identified five different models of TA support and deployment. It was found support models used in mainstream schools were generally inequitable – if students did not have a disability or learning difficulty they received instruction primarily from a qualified teacher, but if students had a disability or learning difficulty, they received instruction from a TA who may have had no qualifications, no involvement in planning, limited supervision and unclear reporting; and no clear duty statement requirements. A more inclusive and more equitable model of TA support is discussed.

Carter, M., Stephenson, J., Webster, A. (2018). A survey of professional tasks and training needs of teaching assistants in New South Wales mainstream public schools. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, DOI: 10.3109/13668250.2018.1462638.

Background: A number of studies of the roles and responsibilities of teaching assistants have been conducted in Australian jurisdictions, but much of this research has been small-scale or geographically localised. Method: The present study was the largest survey conducted in Australia to date and involved a survey of 361 teaching assistants in New South Wales public schools, addressing professional tasks performed, and perceived training needs. Results: Consistent with previous research, there was a strong focus on direct student support, often in a one-to-one context. Generally, the assistants in this research did not perceive a great need for training in most areas relevant to their professional duties. Conclusions: Current patterns of use of teaching assistants may be problematic. It is recommended that teaching assistants provide general classroom support and deliver specific programs under teacher direction, rather than ad hoc individual assistance, and not be required to plan instruction.

Carter E. W., Sisco, L. G., & Lane, K. L. (2011). Paraprofessional perspectives on promoting self-determination among elementary and secondary students with severe disabilities. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 36(1-2), 1-10.

Although paraprofessionals play a prominent role in the education of students with severe disabilities, little is known about the roles these school staff play in fostering self-determination. In this descriptive study, researchers examined the extent to which 347 paraprofessionals employed at 135 randomly selected schools (a) considered each of seven self-determination skills to be important instructional areas for the students with whom they work and (b) reported providing instruction to students in each of these skill areas. Although paraprofessionals generally attached high importance to these elements of self-determination, the extent to which they provided instruction was somewhat variable. Moreover, ratings of some self-determination elements differed based on the school level (i.e., elementary vs. secondary school) and educational setting (e.g., special vs. general education classroom) in which paraprofessionals provided support. Although paraprofessionals reported some familiarity with the overarching construct of self-determination, they infrequently received training on this domain. Recommendations for research and practice aimed at equipping paraprofessionals to support self-determination are provided.

Causton-Theoharis, J., Giangreco, M.F., Doyle, M.B., & Vadasy, P.F.(2007). Paraprofessionals: The “sous chefs” of literacy instruction. Teaching Exceptional Children 40(1), 56-62.

A primary responsibility of general and special educators is to teach students how to read. In inclusive classrooms, paraprofessionals are utilized frequently to support literacy instruction. Paraprofessionals can be employed to help improve reading skills of students with disabilities or those considered at-risk. In this article we outline commonalities from the body of literature where paraprofessionals were used to successfully improve the reading skills of students. These commonalities include: (a) paraprofessionals were used for supplemental, rather than primary instruction; (b) research-based reading approaches were used so that paraprofessionals were not inappropriately asked to make pedagogical decisions, © paraprofessionals were explicitly and extensively trained in the research-based reading approach; (d) paraprofessionals were explicitly trained in behavior management; and (e) teachers and special educators provided paraprofessionals with ongoing monitoring and feedback regarding their instruction. Each of these commonalities is addressed and other practical considerations are also shared and discussed.

Chopra R. V., Sandoval-Lucero, E., Aragon, L., Bernal, C., Berg de Balderas, H., & Carroll, D. The paraprofessional role of connector. Remedial and Special Education, 25(4), 219-231.

This study revealed that close relationships between parents and a paraprofessionals and children and paraprofessionals. These relationships provided the basis for the paraprofessionals to act as connectors between parents and teachers, students and teachers, students and their parents, parents and community services. Paraprofessionals shared how they provided connections between the student and curriculum by using specific strategies aimed at helping students learn. The study also uncovered the barriers and factors that hamper or help the paraprofessional role as a connector. The findings present implications for future practice in terms of how schools can support and encourage this role towards improving everyday instructions for all students.

Christie, K. (2005). Paraprofessionals on the front line. The Phi Delta Kappan, 87(3), 181-182.

Your school might call them paraprofessionals, teacher aides, teacher assistants, para-pros, instructional aides, or noncertified staff. Sometimes they help students one on one. They read with the Bluebirds and the Robins in the little chairs at the back of the room, and they give a yippee when a really hard word gets sounded out correctly. They help Josh and Morgan practice their times tables.

Clarke, E. (2019). Paint pot washers or pedagogues? Is gender an issue for teaching assistants? Educational Review, DOI: 10.1080/00131911.2018.1559800

This paper considers the evolution of the teaching assistant (TA) role in English primary schools, from the once pejorative description of them as paint pot washers to current conceptualisations of them as pedagogues. How the TA role has evolved and the issues associated with the changes to their deployment in mainstream primary schools will be discussed. Questions will be raised in relation to the type of research undertaken on TAs and whether the overwhelmingly female population of English TAs has influenced the studies conducted. The paper will conclude by sharing the methodology and findings from a recently conducted feminist research project investigating TAs’ perceptions of their role.

Clarke, E., Visser, J. (2017). How do teaching assistants view their role in managing behaviour and cultivate their learning and understanding in relation to managing behaviour? Teacher Education Advancement Network Journal, 9(1),66-79.

This paper will consider how teaching assistants’ (TAs’) roles are changing from the historical ‘mum’s army’ (Bach Kessler & Heron, 2006) of paint-pot washers, as some considered it pre-national curriculum, to the developing conception of the TA as a ‘paraprofessional’. Contemporary issues arising from the loosely defined current expectations of TAs’ wider pedagogical role will also be discussed. Consideration will be given to how and why managing behaviour has become an expectation and a necessity for TAs in their current deployment in schools, and why learning about managing behaviour differs for TAs and teachers. Additionally, the paper will reflect on the specific challenges facing TAs in managing behaviour. How TAs learn from each other in communities of practice, as well as from teachers and senior leaders, will be explored. Furthermore, how behaviour policies and policy implementation generally can influence TAs’ opportunities to promote their own learning will be reviewed.

Clayton, T. (1993). From domestic helper to “assistant teacher”: the changing role of the British classroom assistant. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 8(1), 32-44.

Since the implementation of the 1981 Education Act,Local Education Authorities (LEAs) in England and Wales have appointed greatly increased numbers of classroom assistants to help mainstream teachers with the education and management of pupils with special educational needs. Traditionally, these assistants undertook care and housekeeping duties but more recently their role has developed to include substantial involvement in the learning process itself, albeit under the supervision of the class teacher. This paper traces this role change, discusses the reasons for it as well as the implications. The need for clear job descriptions as well as adequate preparation, support and training of assistants, is highlighted with reference to recent research.

Cockroft C. & Atkinson, C. (2015). Using the wider pedagogical role model to establish learning support assistants’ views about facilitators and barriers to effective practice. Support for Learning, 30(2), 88-104.

This article reports on small-scale research exploring the views of learningsupport assistants (LSAs) about facilitators and barriers to effective prac-tice. A focus group was conveyed involving all the LSAs working in onemainstream primary school in the north-west of England and thematicanalysis was used to interrogate the resultant dataset. The Wider Peda-gogical Role (WPR) model (Webster et al., 2011) was used as a deductiveframework to conceptualise these findings under the headings of practice,deployment, conditions of employment, preparedness and characteristics.Findings revealed that LSAs could readily identify current facilitators andbarriers under each of the five components, highlighting the usefulness ofthe WPR model. Possibilities for future research, including the refinementand further development of the WPR, are briefly discussed.

Cole-Lade, G. M., Bailey, L. E. (2019). Examining the role of paraeducators when supporting children with complex communication needs: A multiple case study. Teacher Education and Special Education.

The purpose of this study was to examine the roles of paraeducators in educational teams who supported young children with complex communication needs (CCNs). Participants included members of three teams which included general and special education teachers, paraeducators, speech and language pathologists (SLPs), and parents. An instrumental, multiple case study, qualitative research design was used to better understand paraeducators’ distinct roles and their varying levels of participation as members of their educational teams. Emergent cross-case themes included, first, the varying degrees to which teams worked collaboratively with the paraeducator and, second, the different roles the paraeducators fulfilled based on team members’ expectations. Findings indicated that the degree to which the three teams included the paraeducator as an integral team member varied from minimal to fully integrated. The fully integrated team worked collaboratively to best support the child. The paraeducator’s role and experience on each team was based on the educational team member’s expectations and the support the paraeducator received from the team.

Conway C. Rawlings, J. & Wolfgram, T.J. (2014). Collegiate connections: the story of a licensed teacher in a paraprofessional music position — a cautionary tale. Music Educators Journal 101(2), 83-87.

A trained music educator accepted a band paraprofessional position and discovered some of the challenges inherent in the role. Certified for K-12 music, he was hired part-time in a large suburban instrumental music program. The job, although interesting and challenging, did not pay enough to sustain him financially. Other music educators warned him about being “used” by the administration, but he learned a great deal from the experience and is now a full-time assistant band director. The data shared here also include statistics about increased numbers of paraprofessionals in the education field and offer a personal look at paraprofessional work.

Crosswait-Degen A., Larson, L. L., Marquiss, D., Wragge, M., Christensen, J. E. (1987, Fall). Suggestions regarding the training of speech-language pathologists as supervisors of supportive personnel. Rocky Mountain Journal, 12-15.

This review of the literature addresses the SLP role and the paraeducator’s role. The authors suggest training for SLPs to be supervisors, evaluation of supervisory performance, and minimal educational requirements of assistants.

Dalla, R.L., MoulikGupta, P., Lopez, W., Jones, V. (2006). It’s a balancing act: exploring school/work/family issues among bilingual, rural Nebraska, paraprofessional educators. Family Relations, 55(3), 390-402.

Nebraska’s rural school districts have a rapidly growing Spanish-speaking student body and few qualified instructors to meet their educational needs. This investigation examined factors that promote and challenge the ability of rural Nebraska paraprofessional educators to complete an online B.S. program in elementary education, with a K-12 English as a second language endorsement. Interviews focused on the interface between school, work, and family, with special attention on family system change and adaptation. Twenty-six bilingual paraprofessional educators enrolled (or formerly enrolled) in the education program were interviewed. Twenty were first- (n - 15) or second-generation (n - 5) immigrant Latino/as. Influences of program involvement on the marital and parent-child relationships are discussed, as are implications for future work with unique populations.

Farr, J. (2018). Between a rock and a hard place: the impact of the professionalization of the role of the teaching assistant in mainstream school physical education in the United Kingdom, Sport in Society, 21(1), 106-124, DOI: 10.1080/17430437.2016.1225826.

National surveys of the role of the teaching assistant (TA) in the United Kingdom and the para-educator in the USA have explored and revealed trends in the recruitment, training, deployment and perception of their roles. Recent subject-specific research in the UK has further considered how TAs construct their role when supporting disabled pupils in a specific curriculum subject in a mainstream setting. In light of the implementation of a new code of practice in England from 2014 which changes the way in which a child with special educational needs and disabilities is supported in schools and beyond, this paper explores the roles of TAs working in secondary mainstream schools in the UK who are employed to support disabled children in Physical Education. It considers the way in which the role of the TA has evolved and developed in England following ‘Workforce Reform’ in 2003 and draws on research and literature from a number of sources to explain and update the nomenclature and responsibilities of the para-professional who seems to work ‘subdoceo’ (from the Latin meaning ‘to teach as an assistant’). It is an attempt to consolidate what we know about these roles in a specific subject and to reaffirm the trends identified from the existing small body of work in the UK. In doing so, this paper aims to provide a platform for further research but will also remind teachers of their role in ensuring that their collaboration with and deployment of these ‘paraprofessionals’ is paramount to the best interests of the child.

Ferguson, M. (2014). Teacher aides: The fine art of balance. Kairaranga, 15(2), 56-63.

Teacher aides have been part of New Zealand classrooms for many decades. Initially, they were employed to perform clerical and supervisory duties that required no professional training, such as typing, duplicating and playground supervision. Over the years, however, their role has changed significantly. They now play a pivotal role as a ‘people resource’ in supporting the New Zealand Ministry of Education’s philosophy of inclusion.

Fletcher-Campbell, F. (1992). How can we use an extra pair of hands? British Journal of Special Education, 19(4), 141-143.

Based on research conducted by the National Foundation for Educational Research (United Kingdom), the author describes findings from their study and recommendations for effective practice. Findings reveal a great deal of variability among schools in the hiring, assigning and management of paraprofessionals. Lack of paraprofessional training appears to be the rule rather than the exception. Findings also identify limitations among classroom teachers in knowing how to use and supervise paraprofessionals effectively. Role confusion between classroom teachers and paraprofessionals are reported as a common issue. Recommendations for effective practice outline a variety of strategies to clarify the roles of paraprofessionals and classroom teachers. Training recommendations consider orientation and long- term needs of paraprofessionals. Policy recommendations include the establishment of meaningful school-wide processes to develop a written policy related to the role of paraprofessionals.

Fisher M. & Pleasants, S. (2011). Roles, responsibilities, and concerns of paraeducators: Findings from a statewide survey. Remedial and Special Education.

The purpose of this survey study was to obtain descriptive information about job situations of special education paraeducators from paraeducators across one state and determine their perceptions regarding roles, current issues identified in the literature, and other issues of concern. Of particular interest was whether perceptions varied based on (a) paraeducator assignment (one-to-one or group) or (b) time in general education settings. More than 1,800 paraeducators responded. Findings supported previous studies based on smaller samples. Problematic issues previously associated with one-to-one paraeducators in general education settings were reported as concerns by both one-to-one and group paraeducators who spent all or most of their day in self-contained settings. Discussion centers on the importance of “paraeducator voice” in efforts to address broader issues of inclusive schooling, clarification of paraeducators as instructional team members, and better understandings situated in practice of the paraeducator role as an effective intervention alternative sometimes for students with individualized education programs.

French N.K., & Gerlach, K. (1999). Topic #1 Paraeducators: Who are they and what do they do? Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(1), 65-69.

This is the initial article in a new feature within the journal called “Paraeducator Supervision Notebook”. The feature is edited by Nancy K. French and Kent Gerlach. In this first topic the author addresses a series of foundational topics of interest to teachers by answering a variety of questions. These topical questions include: (1) What is a paraeducator? (2) How many paraeducators are there? (3) What background training do they have? (4) Who are the people who hold paraeducator positions? (5) What are typical characteristics of the people who work as paraeducators? (6) What do paraeducators do? (7) What does the presence of a paraeducator imply about my (teacher) role? (8) What advantage is there to employing paraeducators in special education? (9) What does this mean to your district? (10) What does this mean to you? (11) What can you do? (12) How can you get your questions answered? The article provides brief answers to these questions and incorporates contemporary issues such as inclusive education and changes in IDEA.

French N.K. (1999). Topic #2 Paraeducators and teachers: Shifting roles. Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(2), 69-73.

Explores the changing roles of both teachers and educators. Practical suggestions for educators and paraeducators in inclusive programs; Knowledge of the issues associated with the assignment of tasks to paraeducators; Three sets of considerations.

Gartner A., & Reissman, F. (1974). The paraprofessional movement in perspective. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 53, 253-256.

Provides a perspective on the paraprofessional movement in human services. Factors that contributed to the movement’s development; Movements and approaches to the utilization of paraprofessionals; Achievements and failures of the paraprofessional movement.

Ghere, G., & York-Barr, J. (2007). Paraprofessional turnover and retention in inclusive programs: Hidden costs and promising practices. Remedial and Special Education, 28(1), 21-32.

In recent years, education policies have focused on raising the standards for paraprofessional qualifications, supervision, and development. Given the increasingly problematic rates of paraprofessional turnover, focusing on the retention of effective paraprofessionals is of equal importance. In an effort to understand the reasons for and costs of turnover and to identify strategies that increase the likelihood of retention, 53 district and school employees from six schools in three school districts were interviewed. The findings indicated that the costs of turnover are felt at every level within a school district: central office, school, team, and student. Also suggested were strategies for increasing retention, including ensuring a threshold wage, focusing on job matching early in the employment process, providing ongoing support and direction, and developing a team culture in which paraprofessionals feel valued.

Giangreco M. F., Broer, S. M., & Suter, J. C. (2011). Guidelines for selecting alternatives to over reliance on paraprofessionals: Field-testing in inclusion-oriented schools. Remedial and Special Education, 32(1), 22-38.

This 5-year multisite mixed-methods evaluation study chronicles the field-testing of the planning process Guidelines for Selecting Alternatives to Overreliance on Paraprofessionals in 26 schools (Grades K—12) in six states. Evaluation of the utilization and outcomes of the guidelines process was based on data from 472 study participants. Findings highlight (a) reasons why schools decided to utilize the process; (b) self-assessment ratings, selected priorities, and actions pursued by the schools; © consumer feedback; and (d) the impact of the guidelines process in the schools. Primary areas of impact included changes in special educator caseloads and paraprofessional utilization, extension of inclusive opportunities, and improvement in classroom collaboration and practices. Implications for schools and future research are discussed.

Giangreco, M.F. Doyle, M.B., & Suter, J.C. (2011). Constructively responding to requests for paraprofessionals: We keep asking the wrong questions. Remedial and Special Education.

Paraprofessional utilization has steadily risen in an effort to meet the needs of students with disabilities in inclusion-oriented classrooms. To date, no widely accepted processes exist to assist schools in determining when the use of paraprofessional staff is warranted. Many schools have attempted to fill this void by developing local processes designed to justify paraprofessional assignment. This article describes how justification approaches to paraprofessional decision making operate from a reactive posture, include inherently problematic criteria, and perpetuate socially constructed myths that certain students need one-to-one paraprofessionals. An alternative framework for making decisions is offered through a series of school/district- and classroom/team-level concepts and corresponding actions that can be pursued in developing proactive processes and practices tailored to local contexts.

Gibson, D. Paatsch, L., Toe, D., Wells, M., & Rawolle, S. (2015). Teachers aides working in secondary school settings: Preparedness and professional learning. Journal of Education and Learning, 4(3), 71-87.

In Victoria, Australia teachers’ aides (TAs) are employed to provide support to students with disabilities in accessing their education. The role of the TAs varies within and across school settings. Drawing from the findings of a quantitative study, the purpose of this paper is to develop an understanding of teachers’ aides’ perceptions of their preparedness to perform 18 student-related tasks within the state secondary school setting in Victoria, Australia. In all, 163 participants completed the on-line questionnaire. The results of the study showed that that in general TAs perceive there are tasks relevant to their roles in supporting students with disabilities; and there are tasks that are not applicable to that role. The TAs in this study considered that they had training that enabled them to effectively perform the listed student related tasks to support students with disabilities in the secondary school environment.

Graves, S. (2013). New roles, old stereotypes – developing a school workforce in English schools. School Leadership and Management, 34(3), 255-268.

In this paper, the author explores the development of school staff who are employed to support pupils in the classroom, specifically the teaching assistant/higher level teaching assistant role. These roles have undergone considerable change following the introduction of Workforce Reform and Remodelling in English schools and the National Agreement. In practice, the introduction of this agreement into schools appears to have a powerful gendered aspect which limits choice and agency for individuals and prevents the development of a coherent workforce. I argue that the discourse of maternality within which the school support role has evolved supposes a level of self-sacrifice and conscientiousness which is gendered and conceals the exploitative nature of the role in terms of poor pay and career prospects. Furthermore, the growth of support staff in English schools to undertake roles previously assigned to teachers has had the effect of disaggregating and de-professionalising the teacher role and weakening the traditional job boundaries which defined the work of support staff.

Griffin-Shirley, N. & Matlock, D. (2004). Paraprofessionals speak out: A survey. Re:View: Rehabilitation and Education in Blindness and Visual Impairments, 36(3), 127-136.

A need for more personnel to teach students with disabilities resulted from the passage of Public Law 94-142, The Education for All Handicapped Children Act, which enabled those children to attend school in regular classrooms. Many schools solved their shortages of teaching personnel by hiring assistants, termed paraprofessionals, who were not certified special education teachers but would work under a supervising teacher. The authors review the legislation that affects these paraprofessionals and examine the findings of a survey conducted by the Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired that gathered information about paraprofessionals, including their salaries and work hours, their job descriptions, and their training. The paraprofessional will be even more important to special education in the future. Their training and educational achievements determine how beneficial they can be to children with visual impairments.

Hampden-Thompson, G., Diehl, J., & Kinukawa, A. (2007). Description and employment criteria of instructional paraprofessionals (No. NCES2007-008). Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics.

This Issue Brief (1) offers a descriptive portrait of the distribution of instructional paraprofessionals in all public elementary and secondary schools by instructional responsibility and selected school characteristics and (2) examines the educational attainment criteria used by school districts in hiring these paraprofessionals. Data for this analysis were drawn from the 2003–04 Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS). The findings from this analysis indicate that 91 percent of public elementary and secondary schools in the United States had at least one instructional paraprofessional on staff in 2003–04. A greater percentage of traditional public schools than charter schools had instructional paraprofessionals and a greater percentage of elementary schools than secondary schools report having instructional paraprofessionals. Overall, 93 percent of schools were in districts that required paraprofessionals to have a high school diploma or the equivalent. The results also indicate that a greater percentage of Title I schools than non-Title I schools were in districts that required instructional paraprofessionals to have a high school diploma or the equivalent.

Harris, L. R., & Aprile, K. T. (2015). “I can sort of slot into many different roles”: Examining teacher aide roles and their implications for practice, School Leadership & Management, 35(2), 140-162.

This study utilised role theory to investigate teacher aide roles within regional schools in Queensland, Australia. Twenty primary schoolteacher aides were interviewed; data were triangulated with 27 teacher aides’ responses to a follow-up questionnaire and interviews with 6 administrative staff. Data suggest that classroom instructional support roles and small group instruction dominate teacher aide work; they also perform many non-instructional roles and work individually with students with diverse needs. School leaders must reconsider the roles expected of these professionals given their position, professional training and remuneration, better supporting teacher aides through improved communication, collaboration and sustained professional learning opportunities.

Harris, L. R., Davidson, C. R., & Aprile, K. T. (2015). Understanding teacher aides’ definitions of reading: Implications for classroom practice. The Australian Educational Researcher, 42(5), 627-644.

While teacher aides often provide individual and group reading instruction for at-risk readers, research suggests these interventions may not always bring about reading gains. This Australian study investigated upper primary school teacher aides’ definitions of reading, drawing on semi-structured interview responses and written definitions examined via categorical analysis. The analysis identified six categories classifying participant understandings: Translating, Making sense, Contextualising meaning, Generating an affective response, Using texts for practical purposes, and Growing as a person, with Making sense the most prevalent actual definition. Definitions did not include critical understandings of reading or digital reading practices. The study identifies that teacher aides require better conceptual understandings of reading, especially within upper primary or secondary contexts. However, if teacher aides are expected to obtain further educational credentials or professional learning, careful consideration is also needed about how these increased expectations should impact teacher aide status, working conditions, and remuneration in schools.

Hebdon, H. (2008). The use of one-on-one paraprofessionals in the classroom. Exceptional Parent, 38(3), 88-89.

Examples of this type of separation included the paraprofessional leaving the regular classroom a couple of minutes before the rest of the students to take the student with disabilities to the specialty classroom (e.g., art, music, physical education). The study suggested that different service strategies include: providing needed supports in general education classrooms; training and support for the teacher and students; and increasing the opportunities for students to use natural peer support.

Higgins, H. & Gulliford, A. (2014). Understanding teaching assistant self efficacy in role and in training: its susceptibility to influence. Educational Psychology in Practice: Theory, Research and Practice in Educational Psychology, 30(2), 120-138.

There has been a noted growth in the number of teaching assistants (TAs) in mainstream schools. Research is inconclusive about their efficacy at changing outcomes for children and has proposed more training for TAs. Generic training models have suggested that enhancing self-efficacy in turn improves performance. This exploratory study investigated factors that may influence TAs’ sense of self-efficacy and its susceptibility to influence in training. Following two modes of school-based training by educational psychologists (EPs) data were collected from 14 mainstream secondary school TAs using focus groups. A thematic analysis noted themes regarding self-efficacy, aligned with Bandura’s sources of information, outcome expectations and whole school support and norms. Review of the data from this study is likely to be able to guide potential trainers to coach-consult strategies which are self-efficacy supportive and which address contextual factors including the perceived status of TAs in schools.

Houssart, J. (2013). ‘“Give me a lesson and I’ll deliver it”: Teaching assistants’ experiences of leading primary mathematics lessons in England. Cambridge Journal of Education, 43(1), 1-16.

Teaching Assistants (TAs) in primary schools in England have a growing pedagogic role. For some, this sometimes includes responsibility for the whole class instead of the teacher. This article draws on 24 interview transcripts to examine the practice in the context of primary mathematics lessons and from TAs’ viewpoints. Emergency cover is often seen as reasonable where good working relationships exist. The practice of being regularly responsible for mathematics lessons evokes more diverse reactions. Some TAs initially appear to support the ‘official’ view that it is unproblematic to run a lesson from pre-prepared plans, though close inspection reveals a different picture. Others acknowledge that the interactions involved in such lessons are not necessarily susceptible to planning. The findings raise considerable doubt about current policy and question its presentation as a way to raise standards.

Howard, R. & Ford, J. (2007). The roles and responsibilities of teacher aides supporting students with special needs in secondary school settings. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 31(1), 25-43.

This study examined the perceptions of teacher aides regarding their roles and responsibilities in supporting senior students with special needs in mainstream secondary school settings. Fourteen teacher aides were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide to determine their views regarding their roles and responsibilities, the challenges they faced, their relationships with parents, teachers and students, and their professional development needs. Findings from the study indicated that the participating teacher aides performed a variety of roles and that they often had a considerable degree of autonomy and responsibility in providing academic, social, and behavioural support to the students they served. Teacher aides reported that they were generally satisfied with their jobs and proud of their contributions and accomplishments. However their relationships with teaching staff were often challenging. Teacher aides also indicated that their roles and responsibilities were not clearly delineated, their professional status was not formally recognised, opportunities for advancement and professional development were limited, and that they received little systematic feedback and evaluation of their performance.

Howley, C., Howley, A., & Telfer, D. (2017). Special education professionals in district context. Mid-Western Educational Researcher, 29(2), 136-165.

This survey research investigated the experience of Ohio districts using paraprofessionals assigned to special education students. This study provides a unique statewide description of district experience. Based on themes from the literature and preliminary conversations with educational practitioners in Ohio, the survey conceptualized district experience in five domains: role definition, assignment, supervision, training, and pay. Survey respondents (n = 184) included district superintendents and staff from Educational Service Centers and State Support Teams. Findings, overall, suggest that districts confront challenges in even defining the role of paraprofessional, and that assignment, supervision, and training are often haphazard in Ohio districts; furthermore, that wages are low. These findings suggest that district leadership in Ohio typically pays little attention to the use of special education paraprofessionals. Recommendations are included for research and district-level practice.

Hughes, M. T. & Valle-Riestra, D. M. (2008). Responsibilities, preparedness, and job satisfaction of paraprofessionals: Working with young children with disabilities. International Journal of Early Years Education, 16 (2), 163-173.

To support teachers with their classroom responsibilities, schools have increasingly turned to paraprofessionals for assistance, with the largest numbers of paraprofessionals employed in the field of special education. Owing to this important role that paraprofessionals now perform in the education of children with disabilities in the USA, we set out to investigate the responsibilities that paraprofessionals working with young children with disabilities had. We were also interested in identifying how paraprofessionals and the teachers with whom they work alongside perceived the paraprofessionals’ level of preparedness for their roles and their job satisfaction. Fifty-two paraprofessionals and 59 teachers of young children with disabilities participated in the study. Overall, both paraprofessionals and teachers indicated that paraprofessionals were generally well prepared for activities they frequently engaged in and both viewed themselves as collaborative members of an educational team.

Johnson M.M., Lasater, M.W., & Fitzgerald, M.M. (1997). Paraeducator: Not just an aide. Journal of Staff Development, 18(1), 6-11.

This article describes the authors’ suggestions for essential content of staff development for paraeducators. This content includes: (1) paraeducators’ roles and responsibilities, (2) learner characteristics, (3) data collection, (4) behavioral and instructional strategies, and (5) health-related issues. The authors also present a framework for planning professional development. They conclude with 10 recommendations: (1) communicate that paraeducators are valued and important to the instructional process; (2) incorporate the results of needs assessment; (3) provide ongoing responsive support; (4) include numerous opportunities for sharing, interacting, and problem solving; (5) allow for venting while ensuring refocusing and action; (6) build a solid knowledge base that reflects students’ needs/goals; (7) offer concrete tools to take back to the classroom; (8) offer practical alternatives for responding to implementation challenges, (9) provide opportunities to partner teachers and paraeducators to experience professional development together; and (10) celebrate paraeducators’ successes.

Jones C.R., Ratcliff, N.J., Sheehan, H,Hunt, G.H. (2011). An analysis of teachers’ and paraeducators’ roles and responsibilities with implications for professional development. Early Childhood Education Journal, 40(1), 19—24.

There is a lack of documented evidence related to the relationships existing between paraeducators and teachers working in early childhood classrooms. Based on a 2-year project with three phases of data collection, the authors explore the duties of paraeducators and their working relationships with the teachers with whom they team. Based on findings from the data collected, the authors make specific recommendations for targeted professional development that is designed to improve collaboration and skill sets for paraprofessionals within early childhood learning environments. The position taken is one that supports collaborative teamwork designed to maximize the learning of young children.

Kinyanjui, B., & Harley, D. A. (2018). Utilizing indigenous volunteers and paraprofessionals for disability advocacy and service in rural America. In D. A. Harley, N. A. Ysasi, M. L. Bishop & A. R. Fleming (Eds.), Disability and Vocational Rehabilitation in Rural Settings Challenges to Service Delivery (pp. 677-695). New York: Springer.

Lamont L. L., & Hill, J. L. (1991). Roles and responsibilities of paraprofessionals in the regular elementary classroom. British Columbia Journal of Special Education, 15(1), 1-24.

This article report on a research study. A questionnaire asked regular education teachers and paraeducators about the actual, preferred, not appropriate and not applicable tasks paraeducators were performing in regular education classrooms where special education students were integrated. The study took place in 5 school districts in British Colombia. The participants’ responses were similar for actual and preferred tasks. Tasks listed as not appropriate were instructional in nature; those that were not applicable were in the area of personal care and assistance to students.

Lenski, S. D. (2006). Reflections on being biliterate: Lessons from paraprofessionals, Action in Teacher Education, 28, 104-113.

The purpose of this study is to examine the strengths that biliterate paraprofessionals bring to the teaching workforce. Paraprofessionals, such as teachers’ aides, are commonly used in classes for English-language learners. Because of the pending teacher shortage for English-language learners, a variety of teacher preparation programs have been developed to certify paraprofessionals as teachers. Little research, however, has been conducted about these programs or the teachers who are becoming certified in them. The participants of this study included 10 bilingual/bicultural paraprofessionals who were enrolled in the Bilingual Teacher Pathways program at a large western university. The data sources for this interpretive study were journal entries, interviews, class discussions, and memos. Data were primarily analyzed using the constant comparative method. The analysis of the data indicates that the biliterate paraprofessionals have unique strengths that fall into four categories: A personal understanding of cultural complexities, a learned knowledge of language systems, an ability to communicate with students and families, and a keen awareness of their responsibility as role models.

Lieberman, L. J. (2007). Paraeducators in physical education: A training guide to roles and responsibilities. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics. Publisher’s page.

Edited by College at Brockport faculty member Lauren J. Lieberman.Also includes a chapter by College at Brockport faculty member Douglas Collier: Positive methods for dealing with difficult behavior, and chaopters co-authored by College at Brockport alumni Rocco Aiello: Instruction strategies; and Carin Mulawka: Assessment.Paraeducators work in virtually every school—but until now, no systematic training program has existed to teach them how to work effectively with children in physical education settings. Paraeducators in Physical Education: A Training Guide to Roles and Responsibilities is a comprehensive yet easy-to-use training package for teachers, administrators, and paraeducators. This book and CD-ROM package puts everything you need at your fingertips for effective training from prekindergarten through high school settings for both general and adapted physical education. It presents thorough and practical information across a wide spectrum of issues, including the roles and responsibilities of paraeducators, providing for physical and emotional safety, dealing with difficult behavior, instructional strategies, assessment, and individualized education program (IEP) development. The CD-ROM includes seven PowerPoint presentations to guide training sessions along with easy-to-print handouts in the book to reinforce and extend paraeducators’ learning. This package is useful for in-service days, staff meetings, and independent study programs in school settings. It’s also applicable in college settings, where the material can be used in teaching paraeducators and training the trainers of preservice and in-service teachers.

Loschert K. (2003). No para left behind. NEA Today, 21(6). Reviews the NCLB legislation as it relates to paraeducators.

Lytle, R., Lieberman, L., & Aiello, R. (2007). Motivating paraeducators to be actively involved in physical education programs. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 78(4), 26-30.

Marian was a part-time paraeducator for Sara. Marian hated it when it was time to take Sara to physical education during third period. The smell of the locker room brought back bad memories of her physical education experience as a child. She never felt comfortable in the gym; there was nowhere to sit, and she did not want to sit on the cold gym fl oor in her dress and heels. When the class was held outdoors, she hated tromping through the wet grass in her good shoes. She enjoyed her job in the classroom working on reading and academics with Sara: this was her comfort zone. She disliked the dynamic environment and seeming chaos of physical education, where she never knew what to expect. The special education teacher was not familiar with physical education and often said, “Just make sure that Sara participates.” But what did that mean? The general physical education teacher seemed to be doing a good job: she was enthusiastic and kept the students engaged. However, the physical education teacher had a large class to attend to and very rarely spoke with Marian or Sara. They seemed to slip in and out with little notice.

Maher, A. J. & Vickerman, P. (2018). Ideology influencing action: special educational needs co‐ordinator and learning support assistant role conceptualisations and experiences of special needs education in England, Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 18(1), 15-24.

One outcome of England’s Code of Practice’ (DfE, 1994) was an increase, first, in the number of learning support assistants (LSAs) working in mainstream schools and, second, the establishment of the role of special educational needs co‐ordinator (SENCO). Semi‐structured interviews were conducted with SENCOs and LSAs to explore: (i) why they chose their occupation; (ii) how they conceptualise their role and (iii) the decisions they make when endeavouring (or not) to cultivate an inclusive culture in schools. Many SENCOs sought the role in order to increase the educational attainment and life chances of pupils with special educational needs and/or disabilities (SEND). Inclusive concepts such as fairness, equality and social justice underpinned their rationales. LSA justification was more pragmatic and often related to how the role would help them to achieve a further career ambition, or because it was compatible with personal circumstances. Younger participants thought that they could strengthen their teacher training applications by using the role of LSA to gain more experience working in schools generally, and with pupils with SEND in particular. The role of both SENCO and LSA has been found to be extremely diverse in England, depending largely on the needs and resources of the schools in which these two groups find themselves.

MacVean, M.L., & Hall, L.J. (1997). The integration assistant: Benefits, challenges and recommendations. Australian Disability Review, 2/97, 3-9.

This article summarizes the “opinion and experiences of the authors” (p. 4) based on their close working relationship with the Essex Heights Primary School in Melbourne, Australia. This school “has along history of integration and inclusion” (p 4). In 1996 this school had 714 students, 38 of whom had disabilities (about 5%). They employed 21 “integration assistants” and two “integration teachers” (p. 5). The authors discuss benefits primarily related to teamwork and mutual support among team members. Challenges included time limitations for effective teamwork, planning and evaluation as well as the need for adequate training for all team members. The authors offer a series of recommendations for integration assistants (e.g., advocating for children’s independence; assist children to be socially accepted and to have fun with peers; be patient, caring, encouraging and accepting of children’s rights).

Martin, A.J., Strnadova, I., Nemec, Z., Hajkova, V. & Kvetonova, L. (2019). Teacher assistants working with students with disability: the role of adaptability in enhancing their workplace wellbeing. International Journal of Inclusive Education, DOI: 10.1080/13603116.2018.1563646.

There is much research into teachers’ workplace wellbeing, but very little research investigating teacher assistants’ wellbeing in the workplace – especially those who work in classrooms where students with a disability are present. Research among teachers has identified adaptability as a key to their workplace wellbeing. Following this research, among a sample of 128 teacher assistants who work in classrooms where students with a disability are present, we explored four workplace wellbeing outcomes (workplace enjoyment, participation, self-concept, and motivation) and the role of adaptability in predicting these wellbeing outcomes. Hierarchical path analysis showed that teacher assistants who were adaptable demonstrated significantly higher workplace enjoyment, participation, self-concept, and motivation. Findings suggest workplace adaptability as a critical element of workplace wellbeing for teacher assistants who support students with disability.

Mason, R. A., Gurnerset, A. B., Irvin, D. W. (2020). From the frontlines: Perceptions of paraprofessionals’ roles and responsibilities. Teacher Education and Special Education.

The paraeducator workforce as well as the breadth of their responsibilities to serve students in special education has increased considerably in public schools. Unfortunately, research to identify the most effective methods for training paraeducators has not kept pace. Addressing this dynamic, through an implementation science framework, requires a better understanding of contextual factors. In this study, focus groups (FGs) with paraeducators and teachers were conducted to examine (a) responsibilities, training needs, and related issues of paraprofessionals; (b) training needs and related issues of teachers as supervisors of paraeducators; and (c) factors that support or impede special educators’ self-efficacy and their perception of competence of their colleagues. Four FGs, homogeneous based on role and assignment (mild vs. moderate-to-severe disabilities), were conducted utilizing a semistructured interview protocol. Qualitative content analysis revealed important challenges and training-related deficiencies experienced by both teachers and paraeducators, as well as suggestions for addressing these issues.

Miramontes O. B., Nadeau, A., Commins, N. L. (1997). Restructuring Schools for Linguistic Diversity . New York: Teacher’s College Press.

This article has implications for paraeducator role in bilingual classroom. The authors state that the primary language plays an important role in developing deeper understandings of a topic – as in social studies concepts, which may be taught in English. The native-language paraeducator can play important role here helping to deepen the students understanding of a topic by having conversation with them in their native language. The article recommends cross-grade groupings and specifies that when paraeducators take a group, their instruction must be directly coordinated and supervised by certificated licensed teachers.

Monzo L.D. Rueda, R.S. (2001). Professional roles, caring, and scaffolds: Latino teachers’ and paraeducators’ interactions with Latino students. American Journal of Education, 109(4), 438-471.

Teacher-student interactions and the relationships that foster and are fostered through these play a vital role in school achievement. This article explores the impact that knowledge of students’ culture and community has on the relationships and interactions between Latino teachers and paraeducators and their Latino students. It also compares how school roles mediate use of this knowledge. Findings suggest that knowledge of students’ experiences, primary language, and interactional styles facilitates meeting students’ academic and social needs. Findings also suggest that school roles position teachers and paraeducators to focus on different aspects of children’s development.

Morgan J., Ashbaker, B.Y., & Forbush, D. (2000, November/December). Special helpers. American School Board Journal, 187(1), 54-56.

This article describes the experience of one school district in Idaho and how they implemented an on the job training initiative for paraeducators that included job descriptions and roles and responsibilities of teachers in supporting and evaluating paraeducators. The implementation process is described and goals to establish certification and increased compensation for training are discussed.

Paoni M. F., Wise, S. P., Marshall, M. & Kelly, R. (1996). Classroom Aide-Teacher Relationships. NASP Communiqué. p. 22.

The authors discuss the role of the school psychologist around classroom aide-teacher issues. They are involved in selection, orientation and on the job training of aides. They assist aides in developing skills in behavioral observation. They work with aides to make certain that intervention plans are implemented correctly and monitored on a regular basis. They also help to expand the roles of aides (e.g. through participating in behavior management plans or home-school communication strategies).

Palladino P., Cornoldi, C., Vianello, R., Scruggs, T. & Mastropieri (1999). Paraprofessionals in Italy: Perspectives from an inclusive country. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24(4), 253-256.

Since 1977, Italy has largely eliminated special schools and special classes in favor of neighborhood school placements where students with disabilities are served primarily in general education classes. Overall class sizes are small and caseloads ofspecial education teachers are very favorable (about two students with disabilities for each special education teacher). Because ofthese factors, it was thought that attitudes toward the role of paraprofessionals in Italian schools would differ from those toward paraprofessionals in the United States, where many paraprofessionals take on a more independent role in inclusive classrooms. In this discussion article, we suggest that the role of paraprofessionals might be viewed differently in Italy than in the United States, and that these differences may reflect differing levels of available support for inclusive classrooms.

Patterson, K.B. (2006). Roles and responsibilities of paraprofessionals: In their own words. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus, 2(5).

This study focused on the perceptions of paraprofessionals regarding the roles they fulfill while working with children with disabilities in special education and inclusive settings. Students were in grades K-12 and represented a range of disability categories (e.g.,autism spectrum disorders, serious emotional disturbance, development disabilities, and learning disabilities). Twenty-two paraprofessionals were interviewed using a semi structured interview guide to establish their understanding of their roles, responsibilities, teacher expectations, training needs, and challenges they experienced while working with others. Findings from this study indicate that paraprofessionals tend to assume high levels of responsibility for managing the academic and behavioral needs for all students. This article addresses ways to improve our own practices in how we work with paraprofessionals

Pickett A.L. (1989). Restructuring the schools: The role of paraprofessionals. Washington D. C.: Center for Policy Research, National Governor’s Association.

Nationwide there is a growing recognition of the roles of paraeducators as integral members of the instructional process, and the need to develop standards and systems for improving the employment, performance, and preparation of the paraeducator workforce. There are several inter-related reasons for the growing interest in paraeducator issues. In this article, we are focusing on two of the most important issues. The first is the new dimensions that have been added over the last two decades to the traditionally recognized roles and functions of teachers. The second is the provisions contained in two federal legislative actions. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001, which amended the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), includes several sections that impact on paraeducator employment, training, and supervision in Title I. In addition, amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997 (IDEA) require states to develop policies and standards to ensure that paraeducators are appropriately trained and supervised. Both of these factors have shaped the evolution in the roles, supervision, and preparation of paraeducators who work in early childhood education; elementary, middle, and secondary inclusive general and special education classrooms; Title 1; multi-lingual; and other compensatory programs provided by local education agencies (LEAs) nationwide.

Pickett A. L. (2003). Paraeducators in educational settings: Framing the issues. In A. L. Pickett & K. Gerlach (Eds.) Supervising paraeducators in educational settings: A team approach (2 nd ed.) (pp. 1-44). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

An introduction to the book that recounts the history of the use of paraeducators in education. The editor also summarizes current issues surrounding the employment and training of paraeducators.

Pickett A. L., Likins, M., & Wallace, T. (2003). The employment and preparation of paraeducators, the state of the art – 2003. Utah: The National Resource Center for Paraprofessionals.

A review of literature on the current issues facing the field of education regarding the employment, training, preparation, and career development of paraeducators.

Pickett A. L., Vasa, S. F., & Steckelberg, A.L. (1993). Using paraeducators effectively in the classroom. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Foundation.

Paraprofessionals in education have become specialists, who are more accurately described as paraeducators. Paraeducators work alongside their professional colleagues and participate in the delivery of instruction and related services. This pamphlet provides information about strategies that can improve the deployment, supervision, and training of paraeducators. The pamphlet describes the role of district-level personnel, principals, and teachers in establishing paraeducator programs; clarifies the role of the paraeducator and the supervising teacher; provides a sample paraeducator job description; offers suggestions on daily supervision of the paraeducator; outlines important lesson plan components; provides a list of self-evaluation questions for the paraeducator; offers guidelines for training paraeducators through orientation, inservice training, and on-the-job training; and discusses evaluating paraeducator performance and evaluating teacher supervision of paraeducator performance. The pamphlet concludes with a list of five suggested readings. (JDD)

Piletic, C., Davis, R., & Aschemeier, A. (2005). Paraeducators in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 76(5), 47-55.

Paraeducators have long been employed in the classroom, but their services have not yet been fully put to use in the gymnasium. With the ever-increasing number of physically and mentally challenged students enrolled in general education classes, paraeducators are becoming an essential part of any physical education class. This article explores the various uses of a paraeducator in the gymnasium and explains how they can best aid physical educators. The authors stress that the working relationship between paraeducators and physical educators must include much discussion and clearly defined expectations

Radaszewski-Byrne M. (1997). Issues in the development of guidelines for the preparation and use of speech-language paraprofessionals and their SL supervisors working in education settings. Journal of Children’s Communication Development, 18(1), 5-22.

Reviews the preparation, use, supervision, and qualifications of speech-language (SL) paraprofessionals and their SL supervisors working in educational settings. Identifies ongoing issues that have been barriers to the development of national and state guidelines for SL paraprofessional use and supervision and discusses current issues promoting the development of such guidelines. Offers recommendations. (Author/DB)

Radford J., Bosanquet, P., Webster, R., & Blatchford, P. (2015). Scaffolding learning for indepedence: Clarifying teacher and teacher assistant roles for children with special educational needs. Learning and instruction, 36, 1-10.

Support for children with special educational needs (SEN) in inclusive classrooms, in many countries, continues to be provided by teaching assistants (TAs). Whilst they frequently take responsibility for instruction, they are rarely adequately trained and prepared. As TAs have ample opportunities for individualised and group interactions, this paper recommends scaffolding as the key theory to inform their practice. From a large dataset of interactions in mathematics and literacy lessons, episodes of TA scaffolding were selected. Using conversation analysis, three scaffolding roles emerged: 1) a support role that maintained learner engagement, on-task behaviour and motivation; 2) a repair function that focused on learning and fostered independence when children were in difficulty; and c) a heuristic role that encouraged students to use their own learning strategies. The paper concludes with implications for trainers and managers and how teachers can support TAs in implementing each role.

Radford J., Blachford, P., & Webster, R. (2011). Opening up and closing down: How teachers and TAs manage turn-taking, topic and repair in mathematics lessons. Learning and Instruction.

Support for children with special educational needs in inclusive classrooms is increasingly provided by teaching assistants (TAs). They often have a direct pedagogical role, taking responsibility for instruction in mathematics. The quality of TAs’ oral skills is crucial for learning but has rarely been researched. Using conversation analysis, this study compares teacher and TA talk in terms of turn allocation, topic generation and repair. From 130 recordings, transcripts of mathematics teaching in four lessons were analysed in depth. We found that teachers open up students whilst TAs close down the talk. Teachers, with whole classes, adopt inclusive teaching strategies to ensure oral participation whereas TAs, working with individuals, emphasise task completion. Teachers use open strategies for topic generation whilst TAs ask closed questions. Teachers withhold correction with prompts and hints whilst TAs supply answers. The findings are interpreted with reference to the TA role and implications for management and training.

Radford, J. Bosanquet, P., Webster, R., Blatchford, P. & Rubie-Davies, C. (2013). Fostering learner independence through heuristic scaffolding: A valuable role for teaching assistants. International Journal of Educational Research, 63, 116-126.

Teaching assistants currently play a key pedagogical role in supporting learners with special educational needs. Their practice is primarily oral, involving verbal differentiation of teacher talk or printed materials. In order to help students think for themselves, this paper argues that their practice should be informed by heuristic scaffolding. A substantial dataset from three teaching assistant projects was scrutinised for examples of heuristics. Using conversation analysis, the paper shows how assistance is negotiated and adjusted over a sequence of discourse. Four patterns of heuristic scaffolding are shown: heuristic modelling represents the highest level of support; heuristic questioning and prompting are jointly negotiated with the student. Self-scaffolding by students shows them taking responsibility for their own learning strategies. Implications for the school system are explored.

Rasmitadila & Goldstein, B. L. (2017). The role of special assistant teacher to help special needs student through instructional interactions in an inclusive classroom. International Journal of Special Education, 32(3), 485-506.

This study aimed to determine the role of the special assistant teacher (SAT) compared to the general teacher as English teacher (ET) through instructional interactions in helping slow learner students (SLS) in the English lesson. Twenty-three grade 9 students were observed; interviews were also conducted with the two teachers and several students using semistructured interview guides to determine types of instructional interactions and the role of SAT in helping SLS. Findings from this study indicated that both types of teachers engaged in academic and non-academic interaction with SLS during learning activities. In almost every learning activity, the role of the SAT to the SLS that, the SAT is more dominant than the ET in assisting the SLS. This dominance can lead to both dependence and independence of SLS toward SAT in learning activities.

Riggs C.G. (2004). To teachers: what paraeducators want you to know. Teaching Exceptional Children, 36(5), 8-12.

“I don’t know what she’s supposed to be doing.” “I think she knows what to do.” In my role as a supervisor of elementary school student teachers, I frequently hear comments like these when we discuss a student teacher’s relationship with the paraeducators in a general education classroom. This confusion is probably typical of many student teachers and novice teachers who are just beginning to work with paraeducators.

Rogan, P., & Held, M. (1999). Paraprofessionals in job coach roles. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 19, 32-42.

This article makes recommendations for recruitment and retention of paraeducators for job coach positions. The authors suggest that programs develop accurate job descriptions, proactively recruit desired personnel, and conduct relevant interviews. Furthermore they recommend that programs invest in retention efforts including ongoing professional development opportunities, increasing pay for experience, credentials, and performance, and providing systems of support. The article also identifies some problems with job coaches in work places and discusses specialist vs. generalist roles.

Rose R. (2000). Using classroom support in the primary school: A single case study. British Journal of Special Education, 27(4), 191-196.

A study involving 10 British teachers and 6 primary students with disabilities found the teachers saw the provision of learning support assistants as a critical factor in enabling students to be included in classroom activities. The importance of teamwork and effective communication was seen as essential.

Rueda R. & DeNeve, C.E. (1999). How paraeducators build cultural bridges in diverse classrooms. Community Circle of Caring Journal, 23, 53-55.

In their efforts to accommodate cultural diversity in the classroom, schools have taken a variety of approaches – few of them ideal. In this article, the authors examine how educators can use the “funds of knowledge” available in culturally diverse families and communities to build bridges between the home cultures of students and the cultures of their schools. The student population of American public schools is rapidly becoming more culturally diverse – not in just a few states or in large urban school districts, but on a national scale. The evidence of this can be seen in the increasing number of public school students using English as a second language. Although the general school population in the United States increased only slightly between 1985 and 1992, the number of students acquiring English as a second language grew from fewer than 1.5 million to almost 2.7 million in that same time frame (Goldenberg, 1996). While diversity in the classroom is not troubling by itself ‹ and can, in fact, enrich the learning environment ‹ it is too often associated with low academic achievement. According to Kao and Tienda (1995) achievement differences in all academic areas between whites and Latino students appear early and persist throughout their school careers. How can schools accommodate diversity in such a way that they “level the playing field” for all children, regardless of cultural differences?

Rueda, R., & Genzuk, M. (2007). Sociocultural scaffolding as a means towards academic self-regulation: Paraeducators as cultural brokers. Focus on Exceptional Children, 40(3), 1-8.

In seeking ways to address issues in diverse classrooms, the authors have focused their recent work on paraeducators. The nation’s nearly 500,000 paraeducators working in K-12 classrooms embody a potential source of prospective instructors for the nation’s diverse student population in both special and general education. Paraeducators are school employees whose responsibilities are instructional in nature or who deliver other services to students, working under the supervision of teachers or other professional personnel who have the ultimate responsibility for educational programs. The authors are currently engaged in research examining the instructional activities of Latino paraeducators in classrooms with English language learners. The initial findings of their research reveal that many paraeducators are assigned low-level activities and are given little freedom in terms of instructional activities. While paraeducators do not have the formal training and credentials that teachers do, they do have contributions to make to diverse classrooms. The authors contend that teachers should consider carefully the role of paraeducators in their classrooms and to evaluate whether there are better ways to incorporate and build on this resource.

Rueda, R., Monzo, L. D., & Higareda, I. (2004). Appropriating the sociocultural resources of Latino paraeducators for effective instruction with Latino students: Promise and problems. Urban Education, 39(1), 52-90.

This article examines the sociocultural scaffolding practices of 24 Latino paraeducators and 8 former Latino paraeducators (who had recently become teachers) as they worked with Latino students in two large urban schools. Instances were observed in which participants used important funds of knowledge in their interactions with students during instruction, in informal contexts, and in the case of the current paraeducators to inform the teachers with whom they worked in the community. Unfortunately, use of sociocultural scaffolding was scarce, nonstrategic, and not directly tied to instruction. We argue that under ideal instructional conditions, this knowledge should be fostered, used strategically, and appropriated more systematically.

Shyman, E (2010). Identifying predictors of emotional exhaustion among special education paraeducators: A preliminary investigation. Psychology in the Schools, 47(8), 828-841.

The purpose of this preliminary study was to identify predictors of emotional exhaustion among special education paraeducators. A sample of 100 paraeducators in public and specialized alter-native setting schools was used to determine whether self-reported levels of emotional exhaustion and other job-related factors were reported. Using hierarchical regression analysis, the researche rinvestigated whether predictors of emotional exhaustion could be determined. Results indicated that a notable level of emotional exhaustion was reported among the sample and that role conflict, emotional demand, sense of efficacy, and supervisor support were significant predictors of emotional exhaustion. The results of this study are intended to be used to guide future studies to further investigate this topic.

Singh P. (2000). Local and official forms of symbolic control: An Australian case study of the pedagogic work of para-educational personnel. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 4(1), 3-21.

In this paper an analysis is undertaken of the accounts of pedagogic work provided by para-educational personnel working in two government-funded schools situated in a low socio-economic area of an Australian city. Specifically, the paper examines the accounts of two para-educational personnel who identified as Samoan/Pacific Islander and worked to improve the educational outcomes of students from the local Samoan/Pacific Islander community. It is argued that the pedagogic work of para-educational personnel may play an important role in redistributing discursive (informational) resources transmitted through schooling institutions. However, the positioning of para-educational personnel in the field of the local community and the field of education regulates the form/modality of pedagogic work, that is, what is taught and how it is taught. Moreover, the content and form of pedagogic work has the potential for realising inclusive and/or exclusive relations for students from disadvantaged backgrounds.

Stephenson, J. & Carter, M. (2014). The work of teacher aides in Australia: An analysis of job advertisements. International Journal of Special Education, 29(3), 1-9.

Although teacher aides are often employed in schools to provide support for students with disabilities and special education needs, there is limited Australian research on their work and employer expectations. This article provides an analysis of advertisements for teacher aide positions, and compares the content of advertisements with role statements and teacher aide reports of their work. Employment for teacher aides is likely to be casual and short-term and qualifications are rarely required. A very wide range of criteria was identified and the most frequently mentioned criterion was generic, such as the ability to work in a team. Criteria relating to the actual work aides report they perform or to education department role statements were less frequent. Concern is expressed about the effects of generally poorly defined roles, the lack of required qualifications and the precarious nature of many positions on the education of students with special education needs.

Stewart, E.M. (2018). Reducing ambiguity: Tools to define and communicate paraprofessional roles and responsibilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, OnlineFirst, Last updated July 16, 2018 Collaboration Forum.

One-on-one and program-based special education paraprofessionals are often used to support students with disabilities across school settings. While paraprofessionals may have the best of intentions, their proximity and the support they provide may prevent students with disabilities from fully accessing educational and social opportunities. To prevent unintentional yet negative student outcomes, it is necessary to define and communicate job responsibilities to paraprofessionals before they begin working with students with disabilities. This article outlines several flexible tools and strategies that teachers and administrators can use to efficiently and effectively communicate this information. The article includes (a) a description of how teachers and administrators can define and deliver job-related information to paraprofessionals, (b) reproducible templates for developing a written or digital job responsibilities notebook for paraprofessionals, and (c) recommendations for using these tools effectively.

Takala, M. (2007). The work of classroom assistants in special and mainstream education in Finland. British Journal of Special Education, 34(1), 50-57.

The contribution of teaching assistants, learning support assistants or classroom assistants is becoming increasingly important in inclusive and specialist classrooms. In this article, Marjatta Takala, professor in special education at the University of Helsinki, describes her research into the work of 14 classroom assistants working in a mix of mainstream and special schools in Helsinki, Finland. The results reveal that the tasks undertaken by assistants are different in mainstream and specialist settings and vary also according to the ages of the children involved. The assistants spent more of their time, for example, working directly with children if they worked in mainstream schools. Assistants in special schools, by comparison, spent more time assisting the teacher. Further, assistants working among older children spent more time waiting or simply listening to the lesson than those working with younger children, who seemed to be more actively involved with supporting learning. Marjatta Takala analyses her results by the full range of tasks encountered; according to three broad types of work; and in terms of the planning and co-operation undertaken by assistants and teachers at the class level. Her discussion will be of interest to anyone concerned with the development of support in the classroom and the education of both teachers and teaching assistants.

Tillery C. Y., Werts, M. G., Roark, R., & Harris, S. (2003). Perceptions of paraeducators on job retention. Teacher Education and Special Education, 26 (2), 118-127.

The authors suggest that factors that are pertinent to teacher retention and attrition may also apply to paraeducators. These include burnout as related to low pay, lack of training, lack of support from parents, stress, student discipline problems, inadequate and insufficient materials, lack of administrative support, lack of influence over school policies and practices, and ambiguity of role definition.

Trent J. (2014). ‘I’m teaching, but I’m not really a teacher’. Teaching assistants and the construction of professional identities in Hong Kong schools, Educational Research, 56(1), 28-47.

Background: In the past decade, educational settings worldwide have experienced a significant increase in the number of school-based teaching assistants (TAs). The deployment of these TAs has been accompanied by reports of confusion and uncertainty about their roles and responsibilities within schools. While the need to reframe the role and purpose of TAs is recognised, it remains unclear how this can be best achieved.

Turner D. J. & Grotzky, M.E. (1995). They teach too: A role for paraprofessionals in library instruction. Reference Librarian, 51-52, 181-193.

Describes the use of paraprofessional library staff at Aurora Library (Colorado) to teach part of the bibliographic instruction sessions. Highlights include strategic planning, revising the library instruction program to incorporate reduction and still meet the students’ educational needs, staff attitudes, and program evaluation and changes. (LRW)

U.S. Department of Education (1997). Roles for education paraprofessionals in effective schools: An idea book. Washington, DC: Author.

Educational paraprofessionals can provide strong, multidimensional support for students’ academic success. The first part of this book presents information on roles for education paraprofessionals in effective schools, focusing on the history of paraprofessionals as multifaceted members of the schools staff, the work of paraprofessionals, how to assess whether paraprofessionals can help, and elements of good paraprofessional practice. The second part offers an overview of 15 effective programs nationwide that employ paraprofessionals. The programs include: early childhood education, Title I instruction, Head Start, parent participation, school employee effectiveness training, site-based management, career development, and bilingual pupil services. The third part of the book profiles the 15 effective programs in detail. The three appendixes present listings of paraprofessional job titles and descriptions, profile sites and contacts, and information on Federal student aid programs. (Contains 25 references.) (SM)

Uta, M. W. & Petr, C. G. (2006). Lessons from the research on paraprofessionals for attendant care in children’s mental health. Community Mental Health Journal, 42(5), 459-475.

This article summarizes literature about paraprofessionals who assist children or families in the areas of mental health, education, or early childhood education, and focuses on three main questions: How effective are paraprofessionals?; what are the common and appropriate roles and responsibilities of paraprofessionals?; and what qualifications, training, and supervision are needed for paraprofessionals? Implications are inferred for a burgeoning new form of paraprofessional services: attendant care in community based mental health services for children. Lessons from existing literature can help mental health administrators and clinical supervisors at state and local levels to select, train, supervise, and evaluate attendant care workers.

Wallace, T. (2004). Paraprofessionals in schools. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 17 (1), 46-61.

• The role of paraprofessionals in education has evolved over the past 50 years from assistance with clerical tasks toward more instructional tasks.
• The contemporary role reflects changes in educational practices, evolution of teachers’ roles, shifts in legislation and policy, and shortages of qualified teachers.
• There are varying levels required for certification of paraprofessionals, often dependent on specific job responsibilities.
• Despite recognition of the importance of training, many local and state education agencies do not provide sufficient preservice or inservice training opportunities.

Wasburn-Moses, L., Chun, E., & Kaldenberg, E. (2013). Paraprofessional roles in an adolescent reading program: Lessons learned. American Secondary Education, 41(3), 34-49.

Paraprofessionals are critical to special education service delivery in inclusive classrooms where they are used to support teachers in reading instruction. This qualitative case study examines the use of paraprofessionals in reading instruction in an adolescent reading program. The study focuses on their roles, training, and the feedback provided. Triangulation of data was achieved through the use of document analysis, direct observation, and interviews with the paraprofessionals, supervising teachers, and the school principal. Findings indicated a need for clarification of paraprofessional roles, individualized training and feedback, and shared planning. Attention to these issues is critical in an era of shifting service delivery models.

Watson Bayliss, P., & Pratchett. (2011). Pond life that ‘know their place’: exploring teaching and learning support assistants’ experiences through positioning theory. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education.

Teaching and learning support assistants (TLSAs) are notoriously underpaid and undervalued as members of school workforces in England and elsewhere in the world, where the discourse of support has worked to legitimize their poor status. This article reports and explores empirical findings through the lens of positioning theory. This theoretical approach has revealed ways in which the positions occupied by TLSAs are consolidated in social acts and discursive practices that contribute to a narrative that is shared and understood by those positioned and those positioning. The multiplicity of, and sometimes competing, positions occupied by TLSAs are revealed through different readings of the collective storylines of pond life and knowing one’s place that determine a set of social and occupational practices. These serve to illustrate the discursive fights TLSAs were engaged in to assert their professionalism in schools and to challenge their low status.

Webster, R., De Boer, A. (2019). Teaching assistants: their role in the inclusion, education and achievement of pupils with special educational needs. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 34(3), 404-407.

The long-term, international trend towards the inclusion of pupils with special educational needs (SEN) has been accompanied and enabled by an increase in the employment and deployment of a paraprofessional workforce, known variously as teaching assistants, teacher aides and paraeducators. Australia, Italy, Sweden, Canada, Finland, Germany, Hong Kong, Iceland, Ireland, Malta, New Zealand, South Africa, the United States and the United Kingdom have all experienced large increases in this section of their education workforces (Giangreco, Doyle, and Suter 2014)

Webster, R. (2014). 2014 Code of practice: How research evidence on the role and impact of teaching assistants can inform professional practice. Educational Psychology in Practice: Theory, Research and Practice in Educational Psychology, 30(3), 232-237.

In this article, the author reflects on findings from research on the role and impact of teaching assistants and experience of working as a special educational needs (SEN) officer. Research evidence suggests the reliance on teaching assistants to include pupils with Statements of SEN in mainstream settings masks a collective, though unintentional, failure of educationalists to articulate and provide schools and families of children with SEN with appropriate and pedagogically sound models of inclusive provision. In light of the forthcoming reforms to the SEN system in England, key implications for educational psychologists (EPs) are drawn out, with particular reference to their role in parent liaison during the statutory assessment process.

Webster, R., & Blatchford, P. (2013). The educational experiences of pupils with a statement for special educational needs in mainstream primary schools: Results from a systematic observation study. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 28(4), 463-479.

Findings from the Deployment and Impact of Support Staff project showed that day-to-day support for pupils with special education needs (SEN) in mainstream UK schools is often provided by teaching assistants (TAs), instead of teachers. This arrangement is the main explanation for other results from the project, which found TA support had a more profound, negative impact on the academic progress of pupils with SEN than pupils without SEN. There is, however, surprisingly little systematic information on the overall support and interactions experienced by pupils with the highest levels of SEN attending mainstream schools (e.g. those with Statements). The Making a Statement project was designed to provide such a picture in state-funded primary schools in England (e.g. schools attended by children aged between five and 11). Extensive systematic observations were conducted of 48 pupils with Statements and 151 average-attaining ‘control’ pupils. Data collected over 2011/12 involved researchers shadowing pupils in Year 5 (nine- and 10-year olds) over one week each. The results, reported here, show that the educational experiences of pupils with Statements is strongly characterised by a high degree of separation from the classroom, their teacher and peers. A clear point to emerge was the intimate connection between TAs and the locations, in and away from the classroom, in which pupils with Statements are taught. The currency of Statements – a set number of hours of TA support – is identified as key factor in why provision leads to these arrangements, and appears to get in the way of schools thinking through appropriate pedagogies for pupils with the most pronounced learning difficulties.

Wiggins, R.L., Wilson, L.D. (2009). The role of paraeducators in the educational arena. NAAAS Conference Proceedings; Scarborough: 631-638. National Association of African American Studies.

For the influx of children with special needs in public schools who had previously been denied a right to a public education, additional faculty and staff were needed. According to Rosenberg, Westling, and McLeskey (2008) the primary differences between paraeducators and teachers are (1) teachers must hold at least a four-year college degree, paraeducators need at least two years of college; (2) teachers are the primary planners and decision makers, paraeducators may play a major role in the delivery of instruction; and (3) teachers are accountable for students’ learning, paraeducators are accountable for assisting teachers.

Will, M. (2018). When strikes happen, teachers’ aides have the most to lose. Education Week 37.34 (June 6, 2018) 1.

The national spotlight on the strikes and walkouts this spring has been on the teachers themselves. But in the shadows was another group that’s just as critical for keeping schools running: support staff. Often overlooked in the broader public discourse, these workers, including instructional aides and paraprofessionals, sometimes had more at stake in the walkouts than full-time teachers. When schools were closed, many didn’t get paid.

Wren, A. (2017). Understanding the role of the teaching assistant: Comparing the views of pupils with SEN and TAs within mainstream primary schools, Support for Learning 32(1), 4-19.

The number of teaching assistants (TAs) in schools in the UK has risen in recent years, but there remains a lack of clarity about the roles being undertaken by these support staff. This article reports findings from a study investigating how the TA role is understood both by the pupils being supported and by TAs themselves. Eleven students with SEN were interviewed regarding the support received from TAs within school. Following this, the TAs were also interviewed and asked to explain how they viewed their main support role. The data suggest a difference in the understanding of the role between the two groups, with pupils primarily focused on academic support and TAs focusing instead on behavioural support. Implications for practice include the need to clarify the TA role to support consistency across settings, and the importance of ensuring that pupils with SEN are supported to understand the role of TAs within schools.

Ashbaker B.Y., Morgan, J. (Spring 2004). Legal issues relating to school paraprofessionals. A Legal Memorandum: Quarterly Law Topics for School Leaders (pp. 1-7). Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals. (ISSN 0192-6152)

Complaints, hearings, legal opinions, and lawsuits on issues surrounding the training and supervision of paraprofessionals are increasing. Concern over the lack of preparation of paraprofessionals and the sporadic nature of the training that is available to them (Morgan, Hofmeister, & Ashbaker, 1995; Pickett, 1996) have led to the development of training programs in many states, although these paraprofessional training programs are often localized rather than statewide. Some training has also been developed for supervising teachers (e.g., Morgan & Ashbaker, 2001), and a few programs have been developed for teacher and paraprofessional teams (e.g., Ashbaker & Morgan, 2000; Morgan, 2000). However, the comprehensive system of personnel development needed to ensure proper supervision of paraprofessionals lacks specific guidance for administrators in leading and supporting teacher-paraprofessional instructional teams for maximum effectiveness (Hilton & Gerlach, 1997; Morgan, Ashbaker, & Roberts, 2000). The responsibility of school administrators to oversee the effectiveness of teacher-paraprofessional teams delivering instruction to students is crucial. Failure to carefully examine the profile of a school’s paraprofessionals, including the role they serve in relation to teachers and the part they play on the instructional team, could put the school and the school district at risk of legal proceedings.

Barnes, T.N., Cipriano, C., McCallops, K., Cuccuini-Harmon, C., Rivers, S.E. (2018). Examining the relationship between perceptions of teaching self-efficacy, school support and teacher and paraeducator burnout in a residential school setting. Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties, 23(3), 284-295.

Despite teacher self-efficacy and burnout’s influence on student outcomes, little research has been conducted on teacher self-efficacy and burnout in residential treatment schools. This study attempts to fill this need by examining the self-efficacy and burnout of teachers and paraeducators in a residential treatment school in the United States. We explore the relationships between educators’ perceptions of school supports and educators’ sense of self-efficacy and burnout Our results revealed that while educators’ perceptions of school supports were not related to educators’ sense of efficacy, there was a significant relationship between educators’ perceptions of school supports and reported levels of burnout. Educators who reported lower levels of school supports had high levels of burnout. We discuss implications for larger studies on this topic and for supporting educator well-being in residential treatment schools.

Beale, E.W. (2001). Analysis of state standards for paraprofessionals. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 28(4), 244-248.

Paraeducators constitute an important and significant portion of instructional delivery to all students. Legislative requirements and expanding paraeducator responsibilities increase the need to identity standards that are linked to specific training practices. Nationally, very little has been done to develop credentialing systems for paraeducators and few standards exist for either credentialing or administrative guidelines. However, states have begun to recognize the importance of developing state standards, credentials, and guidelines. This paper presents a review of state standards for paraeducators and training requirements based on defined competencies.

Brittle, B. (2020). Coping strategies and burnout in staff working with students with special educational needs and disbilities. Teaching and Teacher Education, 84, 1-8.

Research on special educator burnout has predominantly focused on demographic, environmental and situational factors, with few studies exploring individual characteristics. This cross-sectional self-report study focused on coping strategies as predictors of burnout among Special Educational Needs and Disabilities (SEND) staff. The survey results from 169 participants showed that emotional coping predicted greater levels of burnout. In addition, avoidance coping predicted higher levels of disengagement, whereas rational coping predicted lower levels of disengagement. These results emphasize the importance of examining individual characteristics in SEND staff burnout. This would have implications for monitoring and addressing the psychological wellbeing of SEND staff.

Etscheidt, S. (2005). Paraprofessional services for students with disabilities: A legal analysis of issues. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30(2), 60-80.

Concomitant with the increase in the number of paraprofessionals assisting students with disabilities is the emergence of legal issues pertaining to the need, selection, responsibilities, preparation, and supervision of those paraprofessionals. The purpose of this article is to provide a legal analysis of administrative and judicial decisions concerning these issues and to propose guidelines for ensuring appropriate paraprofessional involvement in the educational programs for students with disabilities.

Ferguson, M. (2014). Teacher aides: The fine art of balance. Kairaranga, 15(2), 56-63.

Teacher aides have been part of New Zealand classrooms for many decades. Initially, they were employed to perform clerical and supervisory duties that required no professional training, such as typing, duplicating and playground supervision. Over the years, however, their role has changed significantly. They now play a pivotal role as a ‘people resource’ in supporting the New Zealand Ministry of Education’s philosophy of inclusion.

Fluery M. L. (2000). Confidentiality issues with substitutes and paraeducators. Teaching Exceptional Children, 33(1), 44-45.

This article is geared primarily towards first-year teachers of special education. It serves as a reminder on how to handle confidentiality issues with substitute teachers and substitute paraeducators. The author offers advice and solutions in hopes of creating a smooth, consistent transition in the classroom at all times. The author offers point by point guidelines on what to do when the teacher is absent and what to do when the paraeducator is absent. These specific procedures and suggestions stress the importance of planning ahead of time, delegating specific tasks, being consistent and openly communicating the importance of confidentiality, no matter who is in the classroom.

Garwood J.D., Van Loan, C.L., Werts. M.G. (2018). Mindset of paraprofessionals serving students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Intervention in School and Clinic, 53(4), 206-211.

As schools across the United States move toward more inclusive models and as caseloads for special education teachers increase, special education paraprofessionals are being hired to fill service delivery gaps. Most often, paraprofessionals are asked to provide social and behavioral support to students with disabilities, and much of their time is spent in direct support of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Special education teachers have reported that students with emotional and behavioral disorders are some of the hardest to serve, and those working in this field have the highest rate of burnout. Although there has been increased recognition of the importance of mental health and wellbeing for special education teachers, little attention has been paid to paraprofessionals’ needs. Based on recommendations for special education teachers in the extant literature, 12 survival mindsets to be adopted by paraprofessionals are proposed that may prevent burnout by promoting greater resiliency, emotional wellbeing, and self-awareness.

Giangreco M. F., Broer, S. M. (2005). Questionable utilization of paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: Are we addressing symptoms or causes? Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20(1), 10-26.

This article presents descriptive, quantitative data from 737 school personnel and parents who support the education of students with a full range of disabilities in general education classes. The study addresses (a) how special education teachers and paraprofessionals spend their time, (b) perspectives of paraprofessionals about certain paraprofessional practices, and © perspectives of professionals and parents about school wide practices associated with inclusive special education that may contribute to reducing inappropriate utilization of special education paraprofessionals. The findings highlight concerns and suggest that focusing change efforts on paraprofessional issues without corresponding attention to general and special education issues is akin to addressing the symptoms of a problem rather than its roots.

Katsiyannis A., Hodge, J., Lanford, A. (2000). Paraeducators: legal and practice considerations. Remedial and Special Education, 21(5), 297-304.

This article explains the background of a case involving school health services. IDEA mandates that school health services must be provided by a qualified school nurse or other qualified person, but it does specify that courts ruled that a health aide can perform CIC (clean intermittent catheterization) and trach tube suctioning.

Kennedy J.H. (1995). Teachers, student teachers, paraprofessionals, and young adults’ judgments about the acceptable use of corporal punishment in the rural south. Education and Treatment of Children, 18(1), 53-64.

This quantitative, descriptive study included questionnaire data from 256 teachers (grades K-12), 60 paraprofessionals (classroom aides), 241 practicing student teachers, and 480 college students. The questionnaire was designed to measure their views toward corporal punishment based on six scenarios. “Overall, paraprofessionals were more likely to favor using corporal punishment than were other individuals. The most important predictor for the use of corporal punishment was a history of corporal punishment administered by parents, especially for paraprofessionals. This suggests that a more extensive support system (e.g., mentors, modeling, in-service training) be provided for the learning and maintenance of positive classroom management techniques for classroom educators.” (p. 53).

Lifshitz H., Nissim, S., Cohen, S. (2008). Attitudes of Israeli teachers and paraprofessionals towards the new definition of id and their Willingness to cope with special education law changes. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 43(4), 514-528.

Attitudes of teachers (N=96) and paraprofessionals (N=48) working with students with intellectual disability (ID) towards the new definition of ID (Luckasson et al., 1992, 2002), was examined. The main innovation of the new definition of ID is the cancellation of the four ID levels, suggesting an optimistic view, especially towards individuals with severe/profound ID. Participants’ attitudes towards modifiability and the acquisition of new skills by students with severe/profound ID were investigated. Their willingness to cope with the changes stemming from the implementation of the Special Education Law (1988) was also examined as well as their general educational attitudes (conservatism vs. progressiveness) according to role and type of population. Findings yielded low attitudes towards modifiability of students with severe/profound ID (2-4 out of 6). The Denial Culture and the Integrated Threat Theory of prejudice explain these findings. The “control theory” and the top-down approach explain the low scores in willingness to cope with changes stemming from the Special Education Law. The research hypothesis was supported. Paraprofessionals express a higher level of conservatism and lower scores in the attitudes towards the new definition of ID than teachers, especially those working with students with severe and profound ID. These findings suggest that it is not only the education level, but also the type of occupation that determine the worker’s orientation.

Morrison A.D. Luttenegger, K.C. (2015). Measuring pedagogical content knowledge using multiple points of data. The Qualitative Report, 20(6) 804-816.

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is the intersection of a teacher’s knowledge of content, pedagogy, and of the context of the learning situation, including her students. Many different methods have been used by researchers to study PCK. We propose that PCK cannot be measured through one approach. Rather, it is more accurately measured by triangulating data gathered through observation of instructional events, teacher interviews, and assessments of content knowledge. This is illustrated through a case study of Maria, a paraeducator leading small group reading intervention lessons in a kindergarten classroom over a period of 10 weeks

Rubin P. M., Long R.M. (1994, Spring). Who is teaching our children: Implications of the use of aides in Chapter 1. ERS Spectrum, 28-34.

This article presents paraeducators’ perceptions of the role they play in connecting the school to its community. Forty-nine paraeducators employed in various educational settings participated in focus-group interviews. Paraeducators reported close relationships with students and their parents that provided the basis for the paraprofessionals to act as connectors between parents and teachers, parents and community services, students and teachers, students and their parents, and students and their peers. The participants shared how they provided connections between the student and curriculum by using specific strategies aimed at helping students learn. The study uncovered the barriers that hamper the paraprofessional role as a connector.

Shyman, E. (2011). Examining mutual elements of the job strain model and the effort–reward imbalance model among special education staff in the US. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 39(3), 349-363.

Two theories of occupational stress are often cited as being most supported by research: the job strain model (JSM) and the effort–reward imbalance model (ERIM). In order to investigate the applicability of mutual theoretical elements of both models to special education in the USA, a sample of 100 special education paraeducators in public and specialized alternative settings was used. Hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to determine the best set of predictors of occupational stress among theoretically mutual components of each model. Results supported the hypothesis that there are common elements of both the JSM and the ERIM that can be predictors of occupational stress among special education personnel in the USA.

Will, M. (2018). During strikes, stakes high for teachers’ aides. Education Week, 37(33), 14-15.

The article discusses the effects of teacher strikes on school support staff such as paraprofessionals. Topics include the lack of pay for school support staff, pay raises won by teachers in states such as Arizona and West Virginia, and the lack of school district funds to pay support staff during strikes in Oklahoma and Arizona.

Zirkel P.A. (2007). What does the law say? Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(3), 61-63.

The article by Macy & Hoyt Gonzales proposes using curriculumbased-assessment (CBA) in lieu of standardized, norm-referenced assessments for determining eligibility of students under IDEA. Is this approach legally defensible?

Abbott E. A., Sanders, L. (2012). Paraeducators’ perceptions of music therapy sessions. Music Therapy Perspectives 30(2), 145-150.

Twenty paraeducators discussed their perspectives on music therapy sessions in focus groups. Analysis of the discussions revealed those paraeducators’ perspectives on (a) their learning about students through students’ engagement in music therapy sessions, (b) their personal gains from music therapy sessions, and (c) collaborative moments in music therapy sessions. Findings show that music therapists may have the power to support paraeducators in their work, which in turn may elicit paraeducator investment in supporting student engagement in music therapy sessions.

Adolphson S. L., Hawken, L. S., & Carroll, M. S. (2010). Supporting students with disabilities in the general education classroom: The behavioral health assistant. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12(4), 236-244.

This article describes an effective model for employing paraprofessionals to provide behavioral support for students in a general education setting. Behavioral health assistants (BHAs) worked under the supervision of school psychologists and counselors and provided behavioral interventions for students with behavioral goals on their individualized education programs or served a preventive function for students with elevated risk factors who had been referred to multidisciplinary teams due to problem behavior. Descriptive information about the BHA program is provided regarding (a) average numbers of students served; (b) most frequent types of interventions and supports; © types of problem behaviors addressed; (d) changes to students’ grades during the period they received services; and (e) the acceptability of the program among school teachers, administrators, BHAs, and other school personnel.

Alborz, A., Pearson, D., Farrell, P. and Howes, A. (2009). The impact of adult support staff on pupils and mainstream schools. London: Dept. for Children, Schools and Families and Institute of Education.

What do we want to know? What is the impact of adult support staff on the participation and learning of pupils and on mainstream schools? What are the support processes that lead to these outcomes? Who wants to know and why? This information is helpful for the government and local authorities, to assess whether the employment of greater numbers of support staff has been worthwhile. It is also of benefit to school leadership and teachers, providing information on the types of positive impacts support staff have and how these are achieved. Other people interested in improving the quality of education for all children will also be interested in the impact of support staff. What did we find? Pupils: Literature suggests that trained and supported teaching assistants (TAs) can have a positive impact on the progress of individual or small groups of children, in the development of basic literacy skills. In addition, ‘sensitive’ TA support can facilitate pupil engagement in learning and social activities, with the class teacher and their peers; that is, sensitive TA support can both facilitate interaction, and also reflect an awareness of times when pupils need to undertake self-directed choices and actions. Evidence suggests that TAs can promote social and emotional adjustment in social situations, but that they are not very successful in undertaking therapeutic tasks aimed at supporting children with emotional and behavioural problems. Schools: Use of TA support allows teachers to engage pupils in more creative and practical activities and to spend more time working with small groups or individuals. Class-related workload is somewhat reduced when working with a TA, but the teacher role may become more managerial as this workload may increase. An adult presence in classroom makes teachers feel supported and less stressed. The knowledge that pupils were receiving improved levels of attention and support was also reported to enhance job satisfaction for teachers. ‘Team’ teaching styles, involving TAs and work with small groups, can promote learning support as a routine activity and part of an ‘inclusive’ environment in which all children are supported. TAs can act as an intermediary between teachers and parents, encouraging parental contacts, but care is required to ensure that appropriate contacts with the teacher are maintained. What are the implications? The review suggests the deployment of the TA workforce has been successful in providing support for teachers on a number of levels and Abstract 2 The impact of adult support staff on pupils and mainstream schools in delivering benefits to pupils. To enhance these impacts, it is necessary to ensure effective management and support for TAs, including effective training and clear career structure. Collaborative working is required if TA support is to be employed to its best effect. Teachers therefore need to be trained in these approaches and the ongoing effect of this emphasis needs to be monitored in professional standards for teachers. Progress was more marked when TAs supported pupils in discrete well defined areas of work or learning. Findings suggest that support to individual pupils should be combined with supported group work that facilitates all pupils’ participation in class activities. The importance of allocated time for teachers and TAs to plan programmes of work was apparent. Support, embedded as ‘standard’ school practice, with the type and extent of support provided planned on an individual basis, has implications for the destigmatisation of supported pupils.

Anderson, C. M., Smith, T., Iovannone, R. (2018). Building capacity to support students with autism spectrum disorder: a modular apporach to intervention. Education and Treatment of Children, 41(1), 107-138.

There is a large gap between research-based interventions for supporting children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and current practices implemented by educators to meet the needs of these children in typical school settings. Myriad reasons for this gap exist including the external validity of existing research, the complexity of ASD, and constraints on service delivery systems. Thus, a systematic approach is needed to adapt research-based interventions for use in typical school settings. One way to address these challenges is a modular intervention framework. In this article, we describe how a modular intervention framework could be implemented in schools. A case study is used to illustrate implementation of the framework.

Andzik, N. R., Chung, Y., Doneski-Nicol, J., Dollarhide, C. T. (2019). AAC services in schools: a special educator’s perspective. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 65(2), 89-97.

Objectives: Students with intellectual and developmental disabilities often require augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) to fully meet their academic and social potential. AAC supports can be challenging for some educators to implement. This study sought to bring light to these challenges.

Methods: A qualitative interview approach was utilized to examine the perspectives of 14 special education teachers who supported students using AAC systems. Participants described their experiences regarding providing AAC services.

Results: Despite receiving some supports, the majority of teachers identified challenges, including inadequate training, lack of comprehensive assessment, inadequate preparation time, and inconsistent AAC implementation across team members.

Conclusion:This study highlighted key factors that impacted AAC access and outcomes of students with complex communication needs. Practical implications and future research needed to enhance the communication outcomes of students were discussed.

Angelides, P, Constantinou, C, & Leigh, J. (2009). The role of paraprofessionals in developing inclusive education in Cyprus. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 24(1), 75-89.

A presupposition of inclusive education is that all children have the right to attend the school of their neighborhood. The implication of this is that schools begin to be organized in ways to provide equal opportunities for teaching and learning of all children. However, to achieve this, it is implied that schools need more teachers or at least personnel. Thus, many educational systems around the world require the involvement of more teachers and this brings a significant additional financial cost. In order to defray some of the additional costs for additional teachers, many school systems opt to involve paraprofessionals in the educational process, especially for supporting children who experience difficulties in learning. The purpose of this paper is to study the role of paraprofessionals in the educational environment of Cyprus, and how they assist in the provision of more inclusive education. We employed qualitative research methods to collect data from two schools. Our findings show that paraprofessionals had a contradictory contribution to inclusive education: both inclusion and exclusion were two parallel processes in their practices. In addition, their roles were confused. They appeared to have double roles both as pedagogues and as social monitors. This confused status influenced the paraprofessionals’ contribution towards the provision of fully effective inclusive education. (Contains 1 table.)

Ashbaker, B. Y., & Morgan, J. (2012). Team players and Team managers: Special educators working with paraeducators to support inclusive classrooms. Creative Education, 3, 322-327.

This paper summarizes recommendations from a selection of international research literature urging teachers to take the initiative in their own classrooms to invite paraeducators to participate fully as team players in collaborative work. In US classrooms paraeducators (teacher aides/teacher assistants) have long been making valuable contributions in providing education services to students with a variety of needs. The literature documents change in their roles. Legislation has influenced their required qualifications—although legislation still refers to them as paraprofessionals. While some researchers have cast doubt on whether paraeducators are truly effective in their assigned roles, others have warned that the education system is over-reliant on them. In response to this changing perspective, teacher educators must revise programs to better prepare teacher candidates to effectively team with paraeducators. Personnel developers and school administrators must provide inservice training for a generation of teachers who have received little if any training in this area.

Barnes, T. N., Cipriano, C., Flynn, L., Rivers, S. E. & Wei, X. (2019). Validating the recognizing excellence in learning and teaching (RELATE) tool for special education classrooms. The Journal of Experimental Education, 87(3), 415-429, DOI: 10.1080/00220973.2018.1465383

We created the Recognizing Excellence in Learning and Teaching (RELATE) Tool for Special Education Classroom Observation to fill the need for a wellresearched, observational tool that provides a more accurate lens for observing instructional and social processes in the self-contained, special education setting. In this study, we examined the factor structure, descriptive, and psychometric properties of the RELATE Tool using 47 special education classrooms. The results of the descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis, and generalizability and decision studies suggest that the tool’s reliability and validity are promising. We suggest modifications to one component of the tool to improve its psychometric properties.

Bennett T., Deluca, D., & Bruns, D. (1997). Putting inclusion into practice. Exceptional Children, 64(1), 115-131. This study found that classroom teachers needed more support in class as well as help in modifying and adapting the classroom environment and activities, and training on techniques for working with kids with disabilities. The authors mention paraprofessionals specifically. Blacher J. (2007). Holding on to their kitestrings: Paraprofessional support in inclusive settings. Exceptional Parent, 37(10), 74-76.

Many students “included” in general education today are accompanied by a paraprofessional, also known as a 1-to-1 aide, therapist, behavioral aide, or personal assistant. The use of a paraprofessional, particularly with children who have autism, mental retardation, deaf-blindness, or multiple disabilities has many merits, such as increased behavioral support, personal care assistance, and additional supervision. It may seem the only disadvantage would be the additional cost to the school. However, individual paraprofessional support has both advantages and disadvantages for the child. Parents should consider all of these before determining that their child requires a 1-to-1 paraprofessional. While the drawbacks of paraprofessional support might lead some parents and school staff to reconsider the service all together, there are some strategies that can help assure the appropriate use of the 1-to-1. “Holding on to Their Kitestrings: Paraprofessional Support in Inclusive Settings” was written with Tiffany Rodriguez.

Boutot, E.A., Bryant, D.P. (2005). Social integration of students with autism in inclusive settings. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities. 40(1), 14-23.

Students with autism are increasingly being placed in general education “inclusion” settings for the purpose of improved social integration. This article presents information on the social integration of ten students with autism in elementary inclusive settings. The purposes were to describe three social integration constructs of students with autism in inclusive classrooms, including their acceptance (social preference), visibility (social impact), and membership in a peer group (social network affiliation) and to identify the extent to which severity of autism characteristics contributed to these social integration constructs. Results suggest students with autism in inclusive settings are as accepted, visible, and members of peer groups, as well as both their peers without disabilities and those with other disabilities. Post hoc observations revealed further factors that may impact these constructs as well.

Britton, N. S., Collins, B. C., Ault, M. J., & Bausch, M. E. (2015). Using a constant time delay procedure to teach support personnel to use a simultaneous prompting procedure. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 1-12, DOI: 10.1177/1088357615587505. 

Within the context of a multiple baseline design, the researchers in this investigation used a constant time delay (CTD) procedure to teach two classroom support personnel (i.e., paraprofessional, peer tutor) to use a simultaneous prompting (SP) procedure when teaching a high school student with a moderate intellectual disability to (a) identify words from science core content, (b) identify words from social studies core content, (c) make Kool-Aid, and (d) alphabetize last names by their first letters. The classroom teacher implemented the CTD procedure with a high degree of fidelity, the paraprofessional and the peer tutor implemented the SP procedure with high levels of fidelity, and the student increased his ability to perform the targeted skills.

Brock, M. E. & Carter, E. W. (2013). A systematic review of paraprofessional-delivered educational practices to improve outcomes for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 38, 211-221.

The involvement of paraprofessionals in the education of students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) has been both complex and controversial. Many scholars and advocates have raised concerns about the roles these staff members play in schools and the degree to which there is empirical support for their direct work with students. We conducted a systematic review of the literature to address two primary questions: To what extent have paraprofessional-implemented educational practices been shown to improve outcomes for elementary and secondary students with IDD, and what professional development strategies enable paraprofessionals to implement these strategies with fidelity? These studies indicate paraprofessionals, when given adequate training, are capable of effectively implementing a number of educational practices that result in improved academic and social outcomes, specifically, teaching communication skills, reducing problem behaviors, and increasing independence for students with IDD. Follow-up training and support, modeling, and performance feedback were prominent training components across most studies in this review and are validated in the broader research literature. However, limitations leave many questions unanswered about how to best train and support paraprofessionals. We discuss recommendations for preparing paraprofessionals who work with students with IDD, as well as future directions for research.

Brown, T. L., Gatmaitan, M., Harjusola-Webb, S. M. (2014). Using performance feedback to support paraprofessionals in inclusive preschool classrooms. Young Exceptional Children, 17(2), 21-31.

Mrs. Riley and Mrs. Morgan have been working together in an inclusive preschool classroom in an urban elementary school for 3 years. Mrs. Riley has been an Early Childhood Intervention Specialist for 10 years. Mrs. Morgan has been a preschool paraprofessional for 3 years and has no formal education related to early childhood education. Mrs. Riley and Mrs. Morgan have been brainstorming ways to improve their instructional practices. Many of the students in Mrs. Riley and Mrs. Morgan’s class have communication delays or disorders, which led the team (i.e., Mrs. Riley and Mrs. Morgan) to concentrate their efforts in assuring that all of the professionals in the classroom were consistently providing rich opportunities for communication throughout the day. Mrs. Morgan has a nurturing disposition as the paraprofessional, and her interactions with the children and adults are very positive. Mrs. Morgan is always seeking to improve her instruction and is very responsive to feedback from Mrs. Riley and the related service providers who are part of their team.

Bryan, R. B., McCubbin, J., & van der Mars (2013). The ambiguous role of the paraeducator in the general physical education environment. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 29, 164-183.

The use of paraeducators has increased as a main mechanism to include more students with disabilities in the public schools in the U.S. Although the utilization of paraeducators is intended to be a supportive service delivery option, many concerns and challenges have resulted. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of the paraeducator in the general physical education environment from the perspectives of special education, physical education, and adapted physical education teachers and paraeducators. Data were collected from a phenomenological approach using questionnaires, interviews, and observations. Results indicate concerns about the clarity of the role of the paraeducator in physical education. Emerging themes include elastic definitions of student protection and teacher backup, contradictory expectations and mixed acceptance, and paraeducators’ role ambiguity. Findings regarding the role of the paraeducator are essential in determining both best practice and legal policy for the appropriate utilization of paraeducators in physical education.

Bryant, D. P., Bryant, B. R., Smith, D. D.** (2020). Teaching Students with Special Needs in Inclusive Classrooms. Sage Publications, Inc. Thoousands Oaks, California.

Burdick, C. & Causton-Theoharis (2012). Creating Effective Paraprofessional Support in the Inclusive Art Classroom. Art Education 65(6), 33-37.

Paraprofessionals are among the 650,000 people supervised by certified professionals who support students with disabilities as determined by a student’s Individual Education Plan (IEP). Other terms to describe this position may include “aide”, “assistant,” or “associate” among others. The number of paraprofessionals present in classrooms has increased over the past 10 years (French, 2003; Giangreco & Broer, 2005). While there is a growing body of literature that examines the role of parapro fessionals in the general classroom (Broer, Doyle, & Giangreco, 2005), there is little information about the role of the paraprofessional in the art classroom and the types of support offered.

Butt, R. (2016). Teacher assistant support and deployment in mainstream schools. International Journal of Inclusive Education.

Models of support for students with disability and learning difficulties in mainstream classes in Australia rely extensively on teacher assistants (TAs).

Current models, however, inadvertently perpetuate low expectations because providing TA support can be one of the most restrictive supports offered in a school — Giangreco, M. F. 2010a. “One-to-One Paraprofessionals for Students with Disabilities in Inclusive Classrooms: Is Conventional Wisdom Wrong?” Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 48 (1): 1–13; Etscheidt, S. 2005. “Paraprofessional Services for Students with Disabilities: A Legal Analysis of Issues.”Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities 30(2): 60–80. In addition, the increasing instructional role of TAs in the classroom is concerning. Negative outcomes for students where TAs provide support have been noted Giangreco, M. F., J. C. Suter, and M. B. Doyle. 2010. “Paraprofessionals in Inclusive Schools: A Review of Recent Research.”Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation 20: 41–57; Webster, R., P. Blatchford, and A. Russell. 2010. “Should Teaching Assistants Have a Pedagogical Role? Lessons Following the DISS Project.” Paper Presented at the BERA annual conference, September 1–4, University of Warwick, UK. A qualitative case study was conducted in an Australia city over three years across four primary school sites to identify the issues and propose possible solutions. The study identified five different models of TA support and deployment. It was found support models used in mainstream schools were generally inequitable — if students did not have a disability or learning difficulty they received instruction primarily from a qualified teacher, but if students had a disability or learning difficulty, they received instruction from a TA who may have had no qualifications, no involvement in planning, limited supervision and unclear reporting; and no clear duty statement requirements. A more inclusive and more equitable model of TA support is discussed.

Butt, R. & Lowe, K. (2012). Teaching assistants and class teachers: Differing perceptions, role confusion and the benefits of skills-based training. International Journal of Inclusive Education. 16(2), 207-219.

Research has shown that teaching assistants (TAs) working in mainstream classrooms with special needs students in Australia are being required to perform quite complex tasks such as curriculum modification and differentiation yet they are not required to have any formal qualifications nor training in these tasks. In the United Kingdom, TAs are not required to have any formal qualifications, while TAs employed in the USA are required to hold a two-year post-secondary degree or have obtained an associate’s or higher degree. Initial research was undertaken in Stage 1 to identify the roles and responsibilities, skills and training needs of TAs working with special needs students in one school in Canberra, Australia. Information was obtained through separate focus group interviews conducted with class teachers and TAs. Stage 2 involved the design and implementation of five skills-based training modules developed to respond to needs identified in Stage 1. In Stage 3, interviews were conducted with the TAs to determine the effect the training had on their skills and their ability to assist both the class teachers and the students whom they support. Results from the study indicate that there exists role confusion as well as a different emphasis and perception by class teachers and TAs of the skills required to perform in the role of a TA. Results also indicated that specifically targeted skills-based training benefited the TAs and the TAs perceived that this benefit flowed through to the class teachers and the students they support.

Cameron  D. L., Cook, B. G, & Tankersley, M. (2011). An analysis of the different patterns of 1:1 interactions between educational professionals and their students with varying abilities in inclusive classrooms. International Journal of Inclusive Education.

The purpose of this study was to examine the different types and patterns of 1:1 interactions provided by general educators, special educators and paraprofessionals to children with mild disabilities (n = 13), severe disabilities (n = 13), and children without disabilities (n = 13) in inclusive classrooms. General educators, special educators, and paraprofessionals’ 1:1 interactions with students in three comparison groups were recorded in 17 elementary and middle school classrooms using a partial interval observation system. We found significant differences with respect to interaction frequency and content. Teachers and paraprofessionals had consistently more 1:1 interactions with students with severe disabilities, followed by children with mild disabilities, and then students without disabilities. In comparison to special education teachers and paraprofessionals, general educators interacted significantly more frequently with children without disabilities and children with mild disabilities. In contrast, paraprofessionals interacted significantly more often with students with severe disabilities and less frequently with children with mild disabilities and students without disabilities. Instructional interactions in social, behavioural, and functional domains were infrequent in these classrooms. We conclude with a brief discussion of the implications of these findings for future research and practice.

Capizzi, A. M., & DaFonte, A. A. (2012). Supporting paraeducators through a collaborative classrooms support plan. Focus on Exceptional Children, 44(6), 1-6.

Carter, E.W. & Hughes, Carolyn (2006). Including high school students with severe disabilities in general education classes: Perspectives of general and special educators, paraprofessionals, and administrators. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31, 174-185.

Increasing the participation of youth with severe disabilities in general education has remained a consistent and prominent focus of legislative, policy, and research initiatives. We examined the perceptions of high school staff regarding the goals, barriers, benefits, outcomes, and supports associated with including adolescents with severe disabilities in general education classes. We found that general and special educators, paraprofessionals, and administrators both converged and diverged in their evaluations of different aspects of general education participation. Despite broad agreement regarding the benefits of and instructional priorities in general education classrooms, stakeholders differed significantly in their perceptions of barriers associated with including students with disabilities in general education classes at their high schools. (Contains 5 tables.)

Carter, E. W., Sisco, L. G., Melekoglu, M. A., & Kurkowski, C. (2007). Peer supports as an alternative to individually assigned paraprofessionals in inclusive high school classrooms. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 32(4), 1-15.

Promoting access to the general curriculum has emerged as a central theme of the standards-based reform movement, challenging educators to identify effective strategies for supporting students with disabilities to access the numerous social and learning opportunities within general education. We examined peer support interventions as an alternative to one-to-one, adult-delivered support in high school science and art classrooms. All four participants with severe disabilities engaged in substantially more peer interactions when working with a peer support relative to when receiving direct support from a paraprofessional or special educator. Students’ levels of academic engagement were not diminished because of participation in peer support arrangements. We discuss the contributions of these strategies to promoting peer interaction within inclusive classrooms, as well as offer recommendations for further refinement of this intervention approach. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.)

Council for Exceptional Children (2004). The CEC paraeducator standards workbook. Alexandria, VA: Author.

Causton-Theoharis, J. N. (2009). The golden rule of providing support in inclusive classrooms: Support others as you would wish to be supported. Teaching Exceptional Children, 42(2), 36-43.

Inclusion is a way of thinking–a deeply held belief that all children, regardless of ability or disability, are valued members of the school and classroom community. Inclusive classrooms are places where all students “are integral members of classrooms, feel a connection to their peers, have access to rigorous and meaningful general education curricula and receive the collaborative support to succeed.” Because 54% of the 6 million students with disabilities spend more than 80% of their school day in general education classrooms, a common support strategy is one-on-one support. The current ratio is 1 special education paraprofessional for every 17 students with disabilities. But as schools integrate more services into the classroom, adult support will also involve a special educator, a speech and language clinician, an occupational therapist, and physical therapists or a school psychologist. In this article, the term “adult support” refers to any professional who supports a student with a disability in an inclusive classroom. The author states that adult help can be seamless and effective–and thereby fully support the purposes of inclusion. The golden rule for adult support in inclusive classrooms is to support others as one would wish to be supported. Adequately applying the golden rule requires knowledge and imagination. Educators need to know the effect of their actions on students. The author also discusses the need for fading support, as reflected in the literature.

Causton-Theoharis, J. (2009). The paraprofessional’s handbook for effective support in inclusive classrooms. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

What does a great paraprofessional need to know and do? Find out in this handy survival guide, equally useful for the brand-new paraprofessional or the 20-year classroom veteran. Packed with friendly guidance, practical tips, and relatable first-person stories, this book reveals the best ways to provide effective, respectful services to students in inclusive classrooms. Julie Causton-Theoharis, a teacher, professor, and educational consultant with more than 10 years of experience as a paraprofessional instructor, knows exactly how to help readers stop feeling overwhelmed so they can start making a difference. She answers all the urgent questions paraprofessionals have as they navigate their complex job in the inclusive classroom, showing readers how to: provide skillful and subtle support to students while encouraging their independence resolve challenging behavior in gentle and positive ways find students’ strengths and match support practices to them fade their support make informed decisions about content-specific accommodations, modifications, and adaptations presume competence and keep expectations high facilitate peer supports and friendships partner with teachers, SLPs, psychologists, families, and other members of the educational team relieve their own stress and avoid burnout To help them master the daily ups and downs of the inclusive classroom, paraprofessionals will get ready-to-use practical content: tips for supporting students with specific disabilities, helpful question-and-answer sections, examples of successful problem-solving, a quick-guide to acronyms in education, easy ideas for improving teamwork, and more. The essential guide for every paraprofessional and a must-have for the educators and other professionals who support them this empowering book takes the guesswork out of a critical classroom role and helps students with disabilities reach their full potential.

Devecchi, C., Dettori, F., Doveston, M., Sedgwick, P., & Jament, J. (2012). ). Inclusive classrooms in Italy and England: The role of support teacher and teaching assistants. European journal of Special Needs Education, 27(2), 171-184.

Various models of providing for the inclusion of children with disabilities and special needs exist in different European countries. Central to all these models is the notion that support for children and teachers is pivotal in ensuring effective inclusion. This article draws from three qualitative studies on the role, employment and deployment of support teachers in Italy and teaching assistants in England to examine similarities and differences between the two models of provision. The analysis of questionnaires and interviews show that, despite differences in relation to professional qualifications and responsibilities, both support teachers and TAs carry out similar supportive roles, but also share similar feelings of marginalisation, isolation and professional dissatisfaction. The paper raises questions about the effectiveness of providing support from additional adults when such adults are not fully included in the life of the school.

de Verdier K., Fernell, E., Ek, U. (2018). Challenges and successful pedagogical strategies: Experiences from six Swedish students with blindness and autism in different school settings. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(2), 520-532.

The prevalence of autism in children with blindness is much higher than in the general population. There are many challenges regarding the school situation for children with this complex dual disability. This study explored challenges and successful strategies in school for a sample of six Swedish children with blindness and autism, with and without intellectual disability, through qualitative interviews with students, teachers and parents. All students displayed executive functioning deficits, and the teaching situation entailed several challenges. Our research points to the importance of adopting evidence-based practices for ASD, but adapted according to the students lack of vision. For this to be possible, close collaboration between teachers, parents and specialists in the field of visual impairment and autism is necessary.

Douglas, S. N (2012). Teaching paraeducators to support the communication of individuals who use augmentative and alternative communicaiton: A literature reveiw. Current Issues in Education, 15(1), 1-12.

Individuals with complex communication needs (CCN) who rely on augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) to communicate in school and community activities often have paraeducators[1] as communication partners. For individuals who use AAC, successful communication often depends upon their personal skills as well as the skills of their communication partners. Because the skills of communication partners are critical, and can be taught, a review was conducted to identify the effect of teaching paraeducators to provide appropriate communication supports for individuals using AAC using studies that included data for both paraeducators and individuals with CCN. Studies were analyzed using the recommendations from the Communication Partner Instruction Model (Kent-Walsh & McNaughton, 2005). Findings from seven studies suggest that communication partner training to paraeducators can have positive outcomes for the communication behaviors of both paraeducators and individuals using AAC. Implications for practice and future research directions are addressed.

Downing, J. E., Ryndak, D. L., & Clark, D. (2000). Paraeducators in inclusive classrooms. Remedial and Special Education, 21(3), 171-181.

The perceptions of paraeducators regarding their roles and responsibilities in supporting students with moderate to severe disabilities in general education classrooms were the focus of this qualitative study. Sixteen paraeducators were interviewed using a semistructured interview guide to determine their understanding of their role, challenges they experienced, training needs, and relationships with other team members. Numerous roles and different types of responsibilities were described, such as teaching, adapting materials, facilitating interactions with peers, and implementing behavioral interventions. Paraeducators also reported a considerable degree of independence in decision making and implementation of programs. Although the critical importance of paraeducators in the support of students with severe disabilities is not in question, the independence while performing their role may not reflect desired practice, given their minimal training and lack of a teaching credential. Implications for the field concerning the use, training, and supervision of paraeducators are presented. 15(3) 169–179.

Downing J.E. Peckham-Hardin, K. D. (2007). Inclusive education: what makes it a good education for students with moderate to severe disabilities? Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 32(1), 16-30.

Parents, teachers, and paraeducators at three inclusive schools were interviewed as part of a qualitative study to investigate perceptions regarding a quality educational program for students with moderateYsevere disabilities. Instead of looking at schools engaged in a systematic change process from separate to inclusive education for students with severe disabilities, a major premise of this study was that all students, regardless of ability or disability, were educated together in chronologically age appropriate general education classrooms (preschool through 8th grade). The intent of this study was to determine what key stakeholders (parents, teachers, and paraeducators) felt was a good educational program for students with moderatey severe disabilities after an inclusive placement was a given. Fifty-eight participants were interviewed (18 parents, 23 teachers, and 17 paraeducators) representing four preschool children, nine elementary students, and five middle school students all having moderatey severe and multiple disabilities. A constant comparison methodology was used to analyze the data across both age of target child and role of stakeholder. Findings revealed 12 themes that highlighted the benefits of inclusive education for all students, specific components that needed to be in place to ensure a quality education, and typical goals for the future. Implications for the field were discussed,

Doyle, M. B. (2008). The paraprofessional’s guide to the inclusive classroom: Working as a team (3rd ed.) Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.

This handbook is designed to provide introductory information for the paraprofessional, the general educator, and the special educator to enable a better understanding of roles and responsibilities in the inclusive classroom and to enable them to work as a team. Specific instructional strategies that are useful when considering how to provide instruction to students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms are outlined. The guide is divided into five chapters: (1) “The Paraprofessional: Changing Roles and Responsibilities,” addresses why paraprofessionals are in such high demand, the paraprofessionals’ responsibilities in the inclusive classroom, and the type of training and support paraprofessionals require; (2) “The Inclusive Classroom: Being a Team Member,” discusses who paraprofessionals are working with and daily schedules; (3) “The Paraprofessional in the Inclusive Classroom: Supporting Individual Students,” explains Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), how paraprofessionals use IEPs, and the importance of a student’s schedule; (4) “Providing Curricular and Instructional Support: Individualized Instruction,” highlights common components of daily routines, how instructional prompts are provided, and curricular adaptations; and (5) “Maintaining Confidentiality: Communicating with Team Members,” discusses planning communication opportunities and confidentiality requirements. Each chapter provides a brief overview of the topic, chapter objectives, reflections from paraprofessionals, and worksheets. (Contains 15 references.) (CR)

Egilson S.T., & Traustadottir, R. (2009). Assistance to pupils with physical disabilities in regular schools: Promoting inclusion or creating dependency? European Journal of Special Needs Education, 24(1), 21-36.

Drawing on the perspectives of pupils with physical disabilities, their parents and teachers, this study explored the adult support provided to pupils with physical disabilities in regular schools. Data were collected through observations at schools and qualitative interviews. In all, 49 individuals participated in this study: 14 pupils with physical disabilities, 17 parents, and 18 teachers. Six themes emerged that characterised the provision of assistance: (1) roles and responsibilities; (2) quantity and content of support (3) proximity to the pupil, (4) school priorities, (5) independence and autonomy of the child; and (6) the relationship between the teacher and the assistant. An over-reliance on adult support was found for some pupils and contexts, while this support appeared to be under-utilised or ineffectively delivered in other situations. Lack of modifications of the traditional curriculum, teacher instructions, and educational activities increased the pupils’ need for adult support in school. While it is acknowledged that teacher assistants can make valuable contributions in promoting participation and learning among pupils with disabilities, it is argued that the constant presence of an assistant can result in limited use of the children’s strengths and may possibly create unnecessary or unhealthy dependencies. The findings signify that the education system must align with important stakeholders – the pupils, their parents, and external support services – to identify alternative ways to promote participation and learning of pupils with disabilities in regular schools.

Farrell P., Balshaw, M., & Polat, F.**] (2000). The work of learning support assistants in mainstream schools: Implications for school psychologists. Educational and Child Psychology, 17(2), 66-76.

This study was conducted in the UK to: (1) “obtain the views of a range of stakeholders, including parents, teachers, senior staff in schools and LEAs, pupil and LSA’s (learning support assistants), about their [LSAs] roles in schools, they ways they are managed and supported, career structures and training opportunities;” (p. 67) and (2) “To conduct a nationwide survey of training providers – mainly colleges of further education and LEAs – to obtain an overview of the range of training opportunities that are currently on offer and to seek the views of providers about current and future developments in training.” (p. 68). Semi-structured interviews (mostly individual; some focus groups) were conducted in 21 sites including: (a) 4 LEA support services; (b) 12 mainstream schools (6 primary, 6 secondary); © three special schools; and (d) 2 schools/services maintained by voluntary organizations. The following numbers of individuals participated in interviews: 147 learning support assistants (LSAs), 113 teachers, 47 pupils, 34 parents, 29 special educators, 19 head teachers, four heads of support services, nine school governors. Information was collected on 339 courses being offered. An average of 67% of training providers returned questionnaires (the number of respondents is not specified).

Fedlman, E.K., & Matos, R. (2012). Training paraprofessionals to facilitate social interactions between children with autism and their typically developing peers*. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 15(3) 169–179

**Fisher, M. & Pleasants, S. ** (2012). Roles, responsibilities, and concerns of paraeducators: Findings from a statewide survey. Remedial and Special Education, 33, 287-297.

The purpose of this survey study was to obtain descriptive information about job situations of special education paraeducators from paraeducators across one state and determine their perceptions regarding roles, current issues identified in the literature, and other issues of concern. Of particular interest was whether perceptions varied based on (a) paraeducator assignment (one-to-one or group) or (b) time in general education settings. More than 1,800 paraeducators responded. Findings supported previous studies based on smaller samples. Problematic issues previously associated with one-to-one paraeducators in general education settings were reported as concerns by both one-to-one and group paraeducators who spent all or most of their day in self-contained settings. Discussion centers on the importance of “paraeducator voice” in efforts to address broader issues of inclusive schooling, clarification of paraeducators as instructional team members, and better understandings situated in practice of the paraeducator role as an effective intervention alternative sometimes for students with individualized education programs.

French** N. K.** (2003). Paraeducators in special education programs. Focus on Exceptional Children, 36(2), 1-16.

Presents information on the use of paraeducators or paraprofessionals in special education programs. Factors which contribute to the use of paraeducators in special education; Cases which showed the effectiveness of paraeducators; Recommendations on improving paraeducator effectiveness in schools; Web sites which offer information on improving practices and policies regarding paraeducators.

Fried, L., Konza, D., & Mulcahy, P. (2012). Paraprofessionals implementing a research-based reading intervention. Australian Jouranl of Learning Difficulties, 17(1), 35-54.

In many schools in Australia students often begin their primary years with limited preparation for reading. “All hands on deck” are required to ensure the best possible student success rate for learning to read. In this project, Education Assistants, often under-utilised in schools, were used to implement a reading intervention to struggling readers in years one to three. Education Assistants were trained to withdraw students in small groups and engage students in an explicit, systematic early reading program. The intervention was implemented in a cognitively and emotionally supportive manner and the Education Assistants were trained using autonomy support, collaboration and reflection. Results showed encouraging growth in reading skills for all student age groups compared to the rest of the class. The Education Assistants responded well to the initial and ongoing training processes, refining their teaching skills and the intervention over the period. (Contains 11 figures and 5 tables.)

Frith** G. H.** (1982). The role of the special education paraprofessional: An introductory text. Colombus, OH: Charles C. Thomas.

Giangreco, M. F., Doyle, M. B. (2015). Italy presses forward in educating students with learning disabilities. The Phi Delta Kappan, 97(3), 23-28.

Inclusive educational opportunities in Italy are bolstered by classifying fewer students as disabled and by the expectation that classroom teachers will be supported to assume ownership for their instruction.

Giangreco, M. F., Doyle, M. B., & Suter, J. C. (2014). Teacher assistants in inclusive classrooms. In L. Florian (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of special education (2nd ed., pp. 691-702). London: Sage.

Giangreco M. F. Suter, J. C., & Hurley, S. M. (2014). Revisiting personnel utilization in inclusion-oriented schools. Journal of Special Education.

Implementing research-based curricula and instruction in inclusion-oriented schools is helped or hindered by having coherent models of service delivery accounting for the full range of student diversity. The current investigation offers data from 174 participants in 32 schools, analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation, and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). The findings offer replication of special education service delivery data from an earlier study, new descriptive data, and HLManalyses that identify special educator school density (the number of special educator full-time equivalents to total school population) and individual special educators’ Individualized Education Program (IEP) caseload size as variables predictive of special educators’ ratings of the conduciveness of their working conditions to providing effective special education for students on IEPs.

Giangreco M. F. (2010). One-to-one paraprofessionals for students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms: Is conventional wisdom wrong? Intellectual & Developmental Disabilities, 48(1), 1-13.

Assigning one-to-one paraprofessionals has become an increasingly common response to support students with intellectual and other developmental disabilities in general education classrooms. This article challenges the conventional wisdom that such an approach to service provision is necessarily a desirable and supportive action. Five main reasons are presented that challenge over reliance on the use of one-to-one paraprofessionals in inclusive classrooms, establishing it as a critical issue in special education. A series of recommended positions and initial actions are offered to spur debate and encourage development of alternatives to the status quo.

Giangreco M. F. (2009). Critical issues brief: Concerns about the proliferation of one-to-one paraprofessionals. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children, Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities.

As more students with autism, intellectual disabilities, and other developmental disabilities are placed in general education classes, an increasingly common practice is to assign these students one-to-one paraprofessionals as a primary support mechanism. Though offered with benevolent intentions, inappropriate reliance on one-to-one paraprofessionals has been identified a practice fraught with limitations (Giangreco, Yuan, McKenzie, Cameron, & Fialka, 2005). As such it warrants closer scrutiny as a critical issue in special education for at least four key reasons. Overreliance on one-to-one paraprofessionals: (a) is conceptually questionable, (b) may be an unduly restrictive support, (c) is associated with a host of inadvertent detrimental effects, and (d) is exacerbated by insufficient approaches for decision-making. Given the concerns associated with the utilization of one-one paraprofessionals, there are a number of steps school personnel can take to mitigate the problems and provide appropriate supports for students with disabilities who are placed in general education settings: (1) Utilize existing paraprofessionals in responsible ways; (2) Facilitate peer interactions and other natural supports; (3) Involve students with disabilities in making decisions about their own supports; (4) Explore less restrictive alternatives to using one-to-one paraprofessionals; (5) Explore ways to fade one-to-one supports; (6) Have a process for making decisions about one-to-one paraprofessional supports; and (7) Schools can consider systems-level alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals.

Giangreco** M. F. Hurley, S. M., & Suter, J.C.** (2009). Personnel utilization and general class placement of students with disabilities: Ranges and ratios. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 47(1), 53-56.

As of 2006 (U.S. Department of Education, 2006a), approximately six million U.S. students with disabilities (Ages 6–21) were being served under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA). Approximately 54% had their primary placement (80% of the time or more) in general education classes (U.S. Department of Education, 2006b). Although this represented a 21% increase since 1990 (see Figure 1), variability across states remained wide, ranging from under 10% in Virginia to nearly 78% in North Dakota. Variability across disability categories was similarly wide. For example, over 84% of students identified with speech or language impairments had their primary placement in general education classes, whereas less than 16% with intellectual disabilities (labeled by the federal government as mental retardation) had primary placements in general education.

Giangreco** M.F. Broer, S.M.** (2007). School-based screening to determine overreliance on paraprofessionals. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 22(3), 149-158.

This article describes the development of and directions for using a 16-item screening tool designed to assist crossstakeholder school teams in determining the extent to which they may be overreliant on special education paraprofessionals or using them inappropriately. The content of the tool is based on contemporary, descriptive research regarding paraprofessionals in inclusive schools. Additionally, the article describes the field-testing of the screening tool in 27 schools (Grades K–12) in six states. Findings suggest that all 16 screening items represent substantial concerns that interfere with the delivery of high-quality inclusive schooling. Implications for practice are discussed.

Giangreco** M.F. & Doyle, M.B.** (2007). Teacher assistants in inclusive schools. In L. Florian (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of special education (pp. 429-439). London: Sage. Depending on what country you live in, the personnel hired by schools to assist classroom teachers and special educators in their efforts to educate students with disabilities are known by a variety of names such as teaching assistant, learning support assistant (LSA), teacher aide, paraprofessional, paraeducator, and special needs assistant“ (SNA). In this chapter we purposely rise the title, teacher assistant rather than teaching assistant, because in all the cases we identified around the world these individuals assist teachers, though not always with teaching.

Giangreco** M.F. Smith, C.S., & Pinckney, E.** (2006). Addressing the paraprofessional dilemma in an inclusive school: A program description. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 31(3). 215-229.

Many schools have increased their use of paraprofessionals as a primary mechanism to include more students with various disabilities in general education classes. Although intended to be supportive, service delivery that relies extensively on paraprofessionals has resulted in a host of challenges for public schools and questionable services for students with disabilities. This article offers an in-depth description of one elementary school over a 3-year period. It chronicles the school’s use of an action planning tool to pursue alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals as well as service delivery and financial changes that occurred as a result of the school’s actions. The impact of the actions the school implemented and intended next steps offer authentic perspectives for schools facing similar challenges as they seek to extend inclusive schooling opportunities.

Giangreco** M.F. & Doyle, M.B.** (2004). Directing paraprofessional work. In C. Kennedy & E. Horn (Eds.), Including students with severe disabilities, (pp. 185-204). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Giangreco** M.F. Halvorsen, A., Doyle, M.B., & Broer, S.M.** (2004). Alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals in inclusive schools. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 17(2), 82-90.

Though the utilization of special education paraprofessionals has increased, contemporary literature and research highlight a series of concerns about the field’s continuing reliance on this approach. This article presents a three-component administrative model for effective utilization of paraprofessionals that includes paraprofessional supports, decision-making, and alternatives. The bulk of the article provides composite descriptions about seven alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals based on reports from school personnel who have implemented these alternatives. School leaders are encouraged to explore alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals as a way to improve their special education service delivery to meet the educational needs of students with a full range of disabilities within the context of general education classrooms.

Giangreco M. F. Suter, J. C., & Doyle, M. B. (2010). Paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: A review of recent research. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 20, 41-57.

Effective collaboration with paraprofessionals is an important and growing aspect of providing special education services in inclusive schools. We reviewed recent research on special education paraprofessional issues and practices in U.S. schools between 2000 and 2007. Major findings of 32 identified studies were summarized in 9 topical categories: (a) hiring and retention of paraprofessionals, (b) training, (c) roles and responsibilities, (d) respect and acknowledgment, (e) interactions of paraprofessionals with students and staff, (f) supervision, (g) students’ perspectives on paraprofessional supports, (h) school change, and (i) alternatives to the use paraprofessionals. Implications and future directions are offered, including those focusing on clarifying the collaborative relationships among paraprofessionals and other educational team members. 

Giangreco, M. F., Doyle, M. B., & Suter, J. C. (2012). Constructively responding to requests for paraprofessionals: We keep asking the wrong questions. Remedial and Special Education, 33(6), 362-373.

Paraprofessional utilization has steadily risen in an effort to meet the needs of students with disabilities in inclusion-oriented classrooms. To date, no widely accepted processes exist to assist schools in determining when the use of paraprofessional staff is warranted. Many schools have attempted to fill this void by developing local processes designed to justify paraprofessional assignment. This article describes how justification approaches to paraprofessional decision making operate from a reactive posture, include inherently problematic criteria, and perpetuate socially constructed myths that certain students need one-to-one paraprofessionals. An alternative framework for making decisions is offered through a series of school/district- and classroom/team-level concepts and corresponding actions that can be pursued in developing proactive processes and practices tailored to local contexts.

Giangreco, M. F. (2013). Teacher assistant supports in inclusive schools: Research, practices and alternatives. Australasian Journal of Special Edcuation, 37(2), 93-106.

In this article, I summarise the primary content included in a keynote address I delivered via videoconferencing in July 2012 at the national conference of the Australian Association of Special Education, held jointly with the annual conference of the Tasmanian Principals Association in Hobart, Tasmania. The address focused on three major topics pertaining to the utilisation of teacher assistants in inclusive schools: (a) persistent and emerging research trends, (b) contemporary conceptual and data-based concerns, and (c) ideas about what schools can do to provide improved educational opportunities and supports for students with special educational needs in inclusive classrooms. The article concludes that the potential overuse or misuse of teacher assistants is a symptom, not cause. Building integrated models of general and special service delivery in schools can address the challenges associated with questionable teacher assistant utilisation.

Giangreco, M. F., Doyle, M. B., & Suter, J. C. (2014). Teacher assistants in inclusive classrooms. In L. Florian (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of special education (2nd ed., pp. 691-702). London: Sage.

As schools around the world seek to provide inclusive educational opportunities for students with disabilities and other special educational needs, a common response has been to assign teacher assistants (TAs) to provide support. In this chapter, we purposely use the term teacher assistants rather than teaching assistants, because in all the cases we identified around the world, these individuals who are known by a variety of names (e.g., learning support assistants, paraprofessionals, teacher aides), always assist teachers, though not exclusively or necessarily with teaching. Although benevolently intended, providing TA support for students with disabilities has raised a variety of concerns about their utilization and has resulted in a large volume of literature. The purpose of this chapter is to summarize  a selected subset of peer-reviewed studies primarily about school-age students with disabilities in general education classrooms published between 2005 and 2012. Although the majority of studies emanate from the United States and the United Kingdom, research also is included from Australia, Belgium, Canada, Cyprus, Iceland, Ireland, Finland, and New Zealand. Although it is beyond the scope of this chapter to provide detailed explanations of the various educational service across the globe. For example, the United States relies on special education teachers in inclusive schools, whereas the UK utilizes the role of SENCO (Special Education Needs Coordinator); while these roles share the same common elements, they are not equivalent. Additionally, a broader international perspective is provided in brief statements from colleagues offering a glimpse of TA practices in 11 countries (see Table 40.1). This chapter is divided into four main sections. First, we summarize research findings covering longstanding issues well established in earlier studies that remain persistent concerns (e.g., role clarification, training, supervision). Second, we present research that extends more recently initiated lines of inquiry (e.g., effects of proximity, student voice, models of deployment). Third, we highlight research about emerging subtopics where scant data or conceptualizations previously existed (i.e., TA support and academic achievement, alternatives to inappropriate overreliance on TAs). We conclude with implications for practice in inclusive schools and future research.

Giangreco, M. F. & Hoza, B. (August 2013). Are paraprofessional supports helpful? Attention, 20,(4), 22-25.

Giangreco, M. F., Suter, J. C., & Hurley, S. M. (2013). Revisiting personnel utilization in inclusion-oriented schools. Journal of Special Education. 47(2) 121-132.

Implementing research-based curricula and instruction in inclusion-oriented schools is helped or hindered by having coherent models of service delivery accounting for the full range of student diversity. The current investigation offers data from 174 participants in 32 schools, analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation, and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). The findings offer replication of special education service delivery data from an earlier study, new descriptive data, and HLM analyses that identify special educator school density (the number of special educator full-time equivalents to total school population) and individual special educators’ Individualized Education Program (IEP) caseload size as variables predictive of special educators’ ratings of the conduciveness of their working conditions to providing effective special education for students on IEPs.

Graves, S. (2012). Chameleon or chimera? The role of the higher level teaching assistant (HLTA) in a remodelled workforce in English schools. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 41(1), 94-105.

This article draws on research conducted with HLTAs in the North-West of England over two years and is located in the context of workforce remodelling. The respondents have presented a picture of a role which is developing outside the hegemonic discourse of rationality, testing, accountability and performativity within which the teacher role is being developed. In contrast, they suggest the role of HLTA is developing in an extemporized, contextually contingent manner, based on perceived local priorities and defined predominantly in relation to the disaggregation of the teacher role. This article argues that this situation puts HLTAs at the periphery of current policy and, while offering them some resistance to constraining discourses, ultimately places them at a disadvantage in terms of development of their professional identity. Furthermore, this situation presents a challenge to teachers’ professional status and to educational managers and leaders in terms of developing a coherent school workforce.

Gross, K. M. (2020). Visual arts content literacy: a partnership between art educators and special educators. Teaching Exceptional Children, 52(3), 157–165.

Content literacy is necessary for students to be successful in meeting the National Core Arts Standards in the areas of creating, presenting, responding, and connecting. Art educators can with work special educators to support students with disabilities to develop disciplinary literacy using an adapted before-during-after (B-D-A) content literacy model. This article examines the development and application of content literacy supports for an inclusive visual art class. The article outlines actionable steps to support a student before, during, and after artmaking. Coordination between the special education teacher and art education teacher is necessary to implement these differentiated strategies.

Hadadian A. & Yssel, N. (1998). Changing roles of paraeducators in early childhood special education. Infant-Toddler Intervention, 8(1), 1-9.

Analysis of survey responses of 70 paraeducators working in early-childhood settings found paraeductors engaged in 30 different tasks of instructional and/or clerical nature, yet only 30% had received training. Data support other findings indicating a lack of adequate training, few opportunities for career advancement, low wages, and poorly defined job descriptions. Recommendations for changes are offered.

Hammeken P. (2009). The paraprofessional’s essential guide to inclusive education (3rd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

“The Paraprofessional’s Essential Guide to Inclusive Education, Third Edition” is a practical, hands-on resource for use in the classroom or resource room setting. Although the focus is students with special needs, many of the strategies are appropriate for general education students who are struggling in school and may need additional support to experience success in the classroom. The hundreds of numbered strategies in this publication are divided by topic. The numbering system helps the user to document the strategies, along with t (he results. It simplifies record keeping and supports the documentation of student progress. With hundreds of easy to implement ideas at your fingertips, this book will make your job easier. The Appendix includes forms to help with communication, planning, documentation, supplemental student aids, and more.

Harris B.A. (2011). Effects of the proximity of paraeducators on the interactions of Braille readers in inclusive settings. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 105(8), 467-478.

This article reports on a multiple–case study that found a relationship between the proximity of paraeducators and the interactions of students with visual impairments with teachers and sighted students in general education classrooms. More interactions were found with teachers and peers in the classrooms when paraeducators were physically distant from the students. The findings have implications for addressing the roles of and training for paraeducators.

Healy** C.** (2011, Winter). One-to-one in the inclusive classroom: The perspectives of paraeducators who support adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals, ,pp. 77-92.

In public schools nationwide, students categorized with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have traditionally been removed from the general education setting, where they were taught in isolation by special education personnel. More recently, research on the learning needs of students with ASD has suggested the importance of including them along side their peers. As a result, these students and their paraeducators have entered the classrooms of content area teachers. The context can create challenges for the paraeducator and their special education supervisor who has authority for their training and supervision. This study examined five paraeducators employed in a single high school as they enter general education classrooms to support the particular students they are assigned. Participants discussed the need to understand the full range of behavioral manifestations of autism as a starting point for their work. Once participants acknowledged their student’s differences, however, they identified the instructional context their students needed in order to succeed in the inclusive classroom setting.

Hendrix N.M., Vancel, S.M., Wise, S., Kang, S. (2018). Paraprofessional support and perceptions of a function-based classroom intervention. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 62(3), 214-228.

Paraprofessionals carry out behavior interventions for students with challenging behavior in inclusive classroom settings. Examination of paraprofessional involvement in behavior interventions informs how paraprofessionals may best support intervention implementation. The researchers used a withdrawal design to evaluate the effects of a multiple-component intervention primarily conducted by paraprofessionals in decreasing one sixth-grade student’s disruptive behavior. They then used a systematic approach to functional behavior assessment to identify the function of the student’s behavior and to design an intervention, which was tested using a single-subject design. Results demonstrated a functional relation between the student’s disruptive behavior and intervention. Further, the paraprofessionals and classroom teacher regarded the intervention as favorable, suggesting the intervention was feasible and suitable for the student. Discussion includes implications for practice and future research.

Jardi, A., Puigdellivol, I., Petrenas, C. (2018). Teacher assistants’ roles in Catalan classrooms: promoting fair and inclusion-oriented support for all. International Journal of Inclusive Education, DOI: 10.1080/13603116.2018.1545876.

A critical aspect of inclusive policies and practices is the role that Teacher Assistants (TAs) are supposed to assume within mainstream classrooms. Despite the evidence, TAs are still linked to the most vulnerable children, especially those with severe afflictions. This exploratory mixed method of investigation analyses the differences between the job requirements standardised by the Catalan Government (Spain), the roles the TAs believed they had been hired to perform and the tasks they were really carrying out in their schools. It includes teacher and union representative experiences to obtain a more holistic view of current practices. This article provides TAs’ experiences in the Catalan context as well as an analysis of the legal framework on the matter; to better understand these agents, putting emphasis on inclusive practices. According to standards, only one type of TA should give educational support, the others should merely assist. The findings highlight the importance of real and coherent inclusion-oriented TA roles. This places the TA as a key member of a support network maximising all learning opportunities.

Jiminez, B. A. & Barron, T. (2019). Learner-centered professional development: A model to Increase inclusion for students with moderate intellectual disability. Inclusion, 7(2), 125-139. doi: 10.1352/2326-6988-7.2.125

In the current climate of universal accessibility, it is not surprising that more students with disabilities are being served in inclusive contexts. Although the reported increase in inclusion rates are promising, the rate of increase of students with moderate to severe disabilities is thought to be much lower and inclusion is still a struggle for the students with the highest needs. Questions emerge regarding the effectiveness of teaching practices in relation to progress towards specific curricular goals, at least in part because of concerns about dependence on sophisticated teacher skills for meaningful inclusion to occur. General consensus in the field is that professional development may provide support to teachers to adequately serve students with disabilities. We sought to implement a model of professional development which first explored the unique strengths and needs of an individual student or small group of students with a moderate or severe disability who were already being served in the general education classroom. We were able to tailor the learner-centered professional development package based on the needs of the team as they work directly with this population to implement embedded instruction and team collaboration to address the content areas.

Jones K.H., & Bender, W.N. (1993). Utilization of paraprofessionals in special education: A review of the literature. Remedial and Special Education, 14, 7-14.

This article is a literature review that concludes that the efficacy of paraeducator services has only been studied “indirectly” in terms of teacher satisfaction with paraeducators’ performance, rather than in terms measurable in student outcomes in classrooms. The authors suggest four variables could be examined: (1) student; outcomes (2) satisfaction of professionals who work with paraeducators; (3) satisfaction of paraeducators themselves; and (4) improved working conditions of professionals when paraeducators are employed.

Keating, S. & O’Connor, U. (2012). The shifting roles of the special needs assistant in Ireland: A time for change? European journal of Special Needs Education, DOI:10.1080/08856257.2012.711960

The education of pupils with special educational needs in Ireland has generally been influenced by national and international inclusion policy and legislation so that the majority of these children now take their place alongside peers in mainstream classrooms. In Ireland, a support network comprising the teacher and additional classroom assistance now characterises much inclusive school provision. Such support is often provided via learning support teachers, resource teachers and special needs assistants (SNAs), the latter group being the focus of this article. Whilst the professional credentials of this post have evolved in other jurisdictions, the position of the SNA in Ireland has remained largely unchanged, with a job specification that continues to emphasise its caring, non-teaching nature. This article will consider the juxtaposition of the statutory functions of SNAs with their reported role(s) in Irish classrooms. Using quantitative and qualitative data, it will explore the professional profile of the SNA, identify current perceptions on the nature of this post and consider its collaborative potential within an inclusive education system.

Knight V.F., Kuntz, E.M. & Brown, M. (2018). Paraprofessional-delivered video prompting to teach academics to students with severe disabilities in inclusive settings. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(6), 2203-2216.

Video prompting is effective for teaching a variety of skills (e.g., daily living, communication) to students with autism and intellectual disability; yet, little research exists on the efficacy of these strategies on academic skills, in inclusive settings, and with typical intervention agents. Authors collaborated with paraprofessionals to select socially important academic skills (i.e., literacy, social studies, science, and math) aligned with students’ IEPs and content taught in their inclusive classes. Results from the multiple probe across participants and skills design indicated a functional relation between the paraprofessional-delivered video prompting and correct responding to academic tasks for all three elementary students with autism and intellectual disability. Implications for practitioners, study limitations, and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Konza, D. & Fried, L. (2012). Maximizing the contribution of paraprofessionals in schools: A win-win-win story. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 6(9), 115-123.

Paraprofessionals are used in a variety of ways in schools, but in many cases their contribution is limited to resource management or helping a struggling student “finish something off” in a small group or individual session. This paper will report on a project in which a university mentor worked with four paraprofessionals to support small groups of junior primary students who were struggling with basic literacy acquisition. They were taught to use “scripts” to move through carefully sequenced lessons, and to monitor student progress on a daily basis. The students made significant progress throughout the year, but the personal and professional stories of the paraprofessionals surprised all involved. This paper will focus on their stories as they grew in both skills and confidence. There was also wide recognition of their important contribution to the school by the staff and principal. Recommendations to maximize the input of these important members of the school community conclude the paper.

Kraft, C. N., & Slater, A. E. (2009). One-to-one aides for students with autism: A practical and legal guide. Horsham, PA: LPR Publications.

While a one-to-one aide may help some children with autism, it also raises questions: Does the child need one-to-one assistance to receive FAPE? Do the parents have a say in the district’s choice of aide?

Get all the guidance you need in this resource, combining explanations of your district’s legal requirements, case summaries and valuable compliance strategies — so you can minimize the potential for IDEA litigation as you:

• Determine whether the use of an aide is necessary and appropriate for a child
• Communicate with parents about sensitive issues and foster positive relationships
• Select a qualified aide and handle parents’ requests for a specific aide 
• Ensure that aides promote growth rather than dependence 
• Prepare for the reduction or termination of an aide’s services

Lane, J.D., Shepley, C. Sartina, S., & Hogue, A. (2020). Modifying a naturalistic language intervention for use in an elementary school classroom. Autism & Language Impirments, 5, 1-3.

We evaluated a naturalistic language intervention (NLI) targeting expanded forms of expressive communication (e.g., two-word phrases) for elementary-aged children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and/or intellectual disability (ID). This study extends the findings of a previous study that evaluated an NLI for preschool-aged children who displayed social communication delays. In the previous study, one child was considered a non-responder to the original intervention; children with similar pre-intervention profiles to the non-responder were recruited for this study to evaluate a modified version of the NLI with a new participant group.

Lane, K., Carter, E. & Sisco, L. (2012). Paraprofessional involvement in self-determination instruction for students with high-incidence disabilities. Exceptional Children, 78(2), 237-251.

Although enhancing students’ self-determination is advocated as a central element of high-quality special education and transition services, little is known about the ways in which paraprofessionals are involved in promoting self-determination or the extent to which they share teachers’ views regarding its importance. The authors surveyed 223 paraprofessionals from 115 randomly selected public schools to examine their perspectives on promoting self-determination among students with high-incidence disabilities. Overall, paraprofessionals attributed high levels of importance to each of the 7 component elements of self-determination (i.e., choice making, decision making, problem solving, goal setting and attainment, self-advocacy and leadership, self-management and self-regulation, and self-awareness and self-knowledge). The extent to which paraprofessionals reported providing instruction addressing each of the 7 components of self-determination was moderate, with average ratings all slightly above the midpoint of the scale. This article presents implications for the involvement of paraprofessionals in supporting the development of self-determination among students with high-incidence disabilities, along with recommendations for future research

Lawlor L., & Cregan, A. (2003). The evolving role of the special needs assistant: Towards a new synergy. REACH Journal of Special Needs Education in Ireland, 16(2), 82-93.

The post of Special Needs Assistant (SNA) is now an integral part of the Irish educational system. This paper presents findings from an investigation into the evolving role of the special needs assistant from an ‘extra pair of hands’ to a learning support person in the classroom. This role has evolved without clear definition, adequate preparation, specific training or appropriate induction. Its future success is very dependent on a generous enthusiastic and professional response from all parties - SNAs, teachers, principals, Boards of Management and the Department of Education and Science. From the context of developments abroad, through an examination of developments in Ireland, findings from this research offer suggestions for the successful integration of the special needs assistant for the mutual benefit of all parties involved.

Lehane, T. (2015). Cooling the mark out: Experienced teaching assistants perceptions of their work in the inclusion of pupils with special educational needs in mainstream secondary schools. Educational Review, 68(1), 4-23.

Experienced teaching assistants’ (TAs’) perceptions and constructions of their work in the inclusion of pupils with special educational needs (SEN) within mainstream secondary schools are the focus of this study. In a field where much research has focussed on the technicist (TA characteristics and deployment), exploration of “inclusion” and of power relationships is prioritised. Elements of critical discourse analysis (CDA) are used to examine the words of TAs talking about their work. A simple CDA framework was produced, based on the work of others, piloted, and then used to analyse interview data from eight TAs who have extensive experience and degree qualifications. TAs report prioritising discretion, even imperceptibility, in class as they actively stay “under the radar” of teachers and schools. A divide within the mainstream schools between “the mainstream” and SEN resourced “base” seems apparent to the TAs, whether the support base is geographically separated or not. “Inclusion” is actively sought, for example through advocacy, alternative provision and energetic deployment of professional strategies. Insights from the work of Goffman are deployed in the analysis of the TAs’ perceptions in order to contribute theoretical imagination to consider why the limitations in TA practice (reported within this study and within the wider literature) may occur. A degree of emotional labour is indicated but Goffman’s work on managing spoiled identity, stigma and “cooling” is of interest in offering possible explanations for the TAs’ experiences.

Lim, S. M-Y, Wong, M. E., & Denise Tan, D. (2013). Allied educators (learning and behavioural support) in Singapore’s mainstream schools: first steps towards inclusivity? International Journal of Inclusive Education, 18(2), 123-139.

It is arguable whether Singapore’s mainstream schools are moving towards ‘inclusion’ by providing support for students with mild to moderate disabilities through the provision of a newly created para-professional called the Allied Educators (Learning and Behavioural) [AED(LBS)]. Since 2005, the government has provided an incremental supply of these trained para-professionals to offer both in-class support and withdrawal sessions. Many primary and secondary schools have one such para-professional catering to an unpredictable number of children with and without assessed learning needs. This paper draws upon data from a study investigating how a group of 30 newly qualified AED(LBS) para-professionals shaped their professional role during their first year in school. Data were generated through an online survey, interviews; and analysed through theories on identity and communities of practice. Findings focus on how the participants had learned to grow into their roles despite contradictory expectations; how they learn to work with student diversity they had never encountered; and how schools should be learning communities to embrace and include the new AED(LBS). The paper discusses the need to define ‘inclusivity’ and the need for the education system to become more professionally inclusive towards AED(LBS).

Lindsey J. D. (1983). Paraprofessionals in learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16, 476-472.

The purpose of this manuscript is to generate information about the paraprofessional concept as it relates to learning disabilities. A brief review of the paraprofessional literature is reported. The possible roles and responsibilities that could be included in a paraprofessionals job description were delineated and discussed. A structured, comprehensive, and flexible approach that LEA’s could use to implement the concept was proposed. And the problems that are “inherent” in the paraprofessional concept were identified and possible strategies to eliminate or prevent these difficulties were suggested.

Liston, A. G., Nevin, A., & Malian, I. (2009). What do paraeducators in inclusive classrooms say about their work? Analysis of national survey data and follow-up interviews in California. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus, 5(5).

What advice do paraeducators offer regarding the work they do in inclusive classrooms? What barriers and benefits do paraeducators face? In this study, over 200 paraeducators from 38 different states in the USA volunteered to respond to a national survey. Their responses were corroborated in follow-up interviews with 27 different paraeducators at five California school sites in San Diego County. Recommendations for professional development are offered.

Lushen, K., Kim, O., & Reid, R. (2012). Paraeducator-led strategy instruction for struggling writers. Exceptionality, 20(4), 250-265.

Paraeducators are an integral part of instruction in public schools. This study used a multiple baseline across participants design to investigate the ability of a paraeducator to deliver Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) instruction in narrative writing. The paraeducator taught the POW + WWW, What = 2, How = 2–story writing strategy to three struggling fourth-grade writers. After receiving the paraeducator-led SRSD instruction, the stories of the struggling writers became more complete, qualitatively better, and longer on average. The paraeducator was able to deliver instruction with a high degree of fidelity. Limitations of the study and implications for practice are discussed

Maggin, D. M., Fallon, L. M., Hargermoser Sanetti, L. M., Ruberto, L. M. (2012). Training paraeducators to implement a group contingency protocol: Direct and collateral effects. Behavioral Disorders, 38(1), 18-37.

The present study investigated the effects of an intensive training protocol on levels of paraeducator fidelity to a group contingency intervention used to manage the classroom behavior of students with EBD. A multiple baseline design across classrooms was used to determine whether the training was associated with initial and sustained increases in treatment fidelity. Data were also collected on the effects of paraeducator use of the group contingency program on rates of paraeducator, teacher, and student behavior. Results indicated that the training package was associated with immediate increases in paraeducator fidelity, which were subsequently sustained following the removal of systematic performance feedback on paraeducator adherence to the protocol. The implementation of the group contingency program by paraeducators also led to increases in the rates of interactions between paraeducators and students, increases in the rates of teacher instruction, and decreases in the rates of aggressive behavior by students. Findings of the study are discussed within the context of developing effective training methods for paraeducators working alongside students with EBD.

Malian, I. M. (2011). Paraeducators perceptions of their roles in inclusive classrooms: a national study of paraeducators. Electronic Journal for Inclusive Education, 2(8).

With increased mandates for providing FAPE, districts are employing paraprofessionals specifically paraeducators to assist in special education as well as inclusive classrooms. A National Survey was conducted to ascertain paraeducators perceptions regarding their roles with inclusive classes, collaboration with general and special education teachers, responsibilities within the classroom regarding instruction and other management of the daily routines, their beliefs about teaching and training needs. Respondent included 202 paraprofessionals from 34 states with varying degrees of experience and training. Overall, paraprofessionals were positive about their roles in the classroom and the impact of their work with students with disabilities. More time for collaboration with teachers and additional targeted training in disabilities, behavior management and law were expressed as professional development areas.

Margerison A. (1997). Class teachers and the role of classroom assistants in the delivery of special educational needs. Support for Learning, 12(4), 166-169.

In this article Andy Margerison explores the difficulties facing special educational needs coordinators and classroom teachers in designing and delivering effective and accurate individual education plans within existing financial resources through the Code of Practice and suggests that, given appropriate training, classroom assistants could have a greatly enhanced role to play in the process.

Marks S., Schrader, C., & Levine, M. (1999). Paraeducator experiences in inclusive settings: Helping, hovering, or holding their own? Exceptional Children, 65, 315-328.

This study used in interviews with paraeducators to reveal intuitive home-grown attitudes about their roles, in the absence of role specification. Paraeducators believe it is their job to keep students with disabilities from bothering regular education teachers. They further believe that they are responsible for all aspects of a child’s education, that they have to create all modifications and adaptations for the child, and that they are responsible totally for the child.

Mazurik-Charles R. & Stefanou, C. (2010). Using paraprofessionals to teach social skills to children with autism spectrum disorders in the general education classroom. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 37(2), 161-169.

This study is an investigation of whether social skills training provided by paraprofessionals to elementary grade children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) in both partially and fully included classrooms can result in perceived gains in social skills as measured by teacher ratings. Results showed that several areas of social responsiveness noticeably improved as a result of the intervention in the short run; however, sustained improvement was difficult to detect. This study extends the research on the development of social skills among children with ASD by examining perceptions of social responsiveness rather than noting how often the children engaged in prosocial behaviors. It further extends the research by studying the efficacy of using U^ained paraprofessionals to deliver the intervention inconspicuously in the child’s general education classroom.

McCulloch, E. B., & Noonan, M.L. (2013). Impact of online training videos on the implementation of mand training by three elementary school paraprofessionals. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 48(1), 1-15.

With the number of students with autism and related developmental disabilities increasing and a lack of trained professionals, solutions are needed to provide training on a large scale. Alternative training approaches need to be developed so that paraprofessionals can access training in an efficient and effective way.  One such possibility is online training. A multiple baseline design across participants was used to evaluate the impact of online training videos (OTV) on the implementation of mand training with three paraprofessionals in a public school setting. The three paraprofessionals were of Hawaiian ancestry, ages 32, 34, and 42 years.  Three elementary aged students with autism and developmental disabilities also participated in the study.  They were ages, 6, 8, and 10 years, and also of Hawaiian ancestry. All participants lived in a rural area of Hawaii. After the OTVs, the percentage of correct implementation of mand training increased for all paraprofessional participants and maintained over time. Improvements in accurate teaching were also accompanied by increases in the rate of spontaneous manding by the students. Results support the use of online training as an effective alternative to inservice training for paraprofessionals. - See more.

McNaughton, D., Light, J., et.al. (2019). Building capacity in AAC: A person-centred approach to supporting participation by people with complex communication needs. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, DOI: 10.1080/07434618.2018.1556731.

Effective communication is based both on the capacity of the person with complex communication needs, and of other key stakeholders (including communication and education professionals, family members, community partners, and healthcare professionals), to ensure that appropriate AAC supports are provided. In this paper, we describe strategies to build awareness of AAC and to assist people with complex communication needs in obtaining needed services; to build the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of AAC service providers; to provide instruction for people with complex communication needs, as well as communication partners and advocates; and to develop communication supports in society more broadly. We also provide an agenda for building capacity in research and development activities to support full participation by people with complex communication needs throughout society.

Merry, M. S. (2019). Do inclusion policies deliver educational justice for children with autism? An ethical analysis. Journal of School Choice, DOI: 10.1080/15582159.2019.1644126.

In this essay I ask what educational justice might require for children with autism in educational settings where “inclusion” entails not only meaningful access, but also where the educational setting is able to facilitate a sense of belonging and further is conducive to well-being. I argue when we attempt to answer the question “do inclusion policies deliver educational justice?” that we pay close attention to the specific dimensions of well-being for children with autism. Whatever the specifics of individual cases, both an attitude and policy of inclusion must permit parents to choose pragmatic alternatives, i.e., different learning environments, if educational justice is to remain the overriding goal.

Milley, A. & Machalicek, W. (2012). Decreasing students’ reliance on adults: A strategic guide for teachers of students with autism spectrum disorders. Intervention in School and Clinic, 48(2), 67-75.

Students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) often lack independent task initiation skills, have difficulty staying actively engaged in academic tasks, and may require prompting to complete and transition between tasks or activities. In response to these difficulties, teachers often provide additional attention to students in the form of frequent verbal prompts and individual support. Unfortunately, these instructional strategies may have negative academic and social implications as students become dependent on adults for prompts and social supports. This article highlights the importance of fostering student independence for students with ASD and presents three evidence-based strategies to improve student task engagement and decrease reliance on adult prompts: activity schedules, tactile prompting, and peer support interventions.

Minondo** S., Meyer, L.H., & Xin, J.F.** (2001). The role and responsibilities of teaching assistants in inclusive education: What’s appropriate. The Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 26, 114-119.

This study describes a social validation of appropriate roles and responsibilities for teaching assistants (TAs) in inclusive classrooms using a self-report survey completed by general education teachers, special education teachers, and TAs. Factor analysis suggested five major role components including: instruction, school support, liaison, personal support, and one-to-one in-class support. The need to clarify TA job expectations is stressed. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

Monzo L.D. Rueda, R (2003). Shaping education through diverse funds of knowledge: a look at one Latina paraeducator’s lived experiences, beliefs, and teaching practice. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 34(1), 72-95.

We examine the experiences of one Mexican immigrant paraeducator and how these translate into beliefs and teaching. Generally, the concept of “funds ofknowledge” has been used with respect to students. We use this concept more broadly to consider the experiences of teachers as critical to their teaching and as resources for instruction. This paraeducator had markedly different experiences from those of the mainstream teaching force yet numerous factors mitigated against using these for instruction. Our work documents how the multiple sociocultural contexts of teachers’ lives and their later beliefs and practices interact in particular institutional settings to impact teaching practices. Increased attention to the study of teachers’ cultural beliefs and practices has important implications for the study of schooling and teacher education.

Morrison, H., Gleddie, D.** (2019). Interpretive case studies of inclusive physical education: shared experiences from diverse school settings. International Journal of Inclusive Education, DOI: 10.1080/13603116.2018.1557751.

To the authors’ knowledge, the research reported in inclusive physical education (IPE) literature is limited to exploring teachers’ and educational assistants’ (EAs) experiences working together in a joint classroom environment. Teachers’ and EAs’ experiences can be misunderstood when their stories are not heard in context, together, or compared to other stories and situations. This hermeneutical and interpretive research involved learning about IPE experiences from three diverse cases, which involved three inservice teachers and three EAs. Data gathered included class observations, interviews, focus groups, and reflective journals. The information learned through these processes was analysed to develop themes. The findings highlight three issues: how teachers’ and EAs’ training and background education, along with their practical experiences and support from EAs, contribute to the implementation of IPE; how teachers’ and EAs’ past physical education experiences and current engagement with physical activity impact their teaching/assisting in IPE; and how the planning and choice of activities influences student participation in IPE. Overall, experiences of IPE are dependent on past experiences, education/training, and IPE situations. To improve IPE implementation, teachers and EAs need practical and contextual professional development (PD) that considers activities that are appropriate for their prior knowledge and experience and for theirstudents.

Mortier K., Desimpel, L., De Schauwer, E., & Van Hove, G. (2011). “I want support, not comments”: Children’s perspectives on supports in their life. Disability & Society, 26: 207-221.

Even though supports are a major part of the daily lives of children with special educational needs who participate in general education schools, little attention has been paid to how children experience supports. Six children and their peers who were interviewed appreciated supports because they remove restrictions in activities due to the impairment. However, their experiences also show how these positive supports can have negative psycho‐emotional repercussions, and are less focused on addressing disabling barriers. The children’s accounts demonstrate the ambiguous and situated nature of supports, and the need for the children to be able to direct supports as ‘chief partners’ in the inclusion process.

National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (1999). Learning disabilities: Use of paraprofessionals. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 22(1), 23-30.

Since its inception, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) has embodied the concept of teams of professionals, often from different disciplines, working together to meet the needs of children and youth with disabilities and their families. In recent years the team concept has expanded to include paraprofessionals as members of these teams. The term “paraprofessional” is used in IDEA [Sec. 612(a) (15) (B) (iii)]. The term paraprofessional“ is used in this document as an inclusive term applying to a group of resources and job titles (see the definition of paraprofessionals on p. 3).

O’Brien, K. M., Brunsting, N. C., Bettini, E., Cumming, M. M., Ragunathan, M., & Sutton, R. (2019). Special educators’ working conditions in self-contained settings for students with emotional or behavioral disorders: a descriptive analysis. Exceptional Children, 86(1), 40–57.

Special education teachers (SETs) who teach students with emotional or behavioral disorders (EBD) in self-contained settings are often less qualified, more stressed and burned out, and more likely to leave teaching than other SETs, resulting in a less effective workforce teaching students with significant behavioral and academic needs. Working conditions are a lever by which outcomes can be improved for SETs in these settings, yet the extant research on SETs’ working conditions in self-contained settings is scarce; no researchers have comprehensively examined these SETs’ working conditions using a national sample. To fill this crucial gap in the literature, we surveyed a national sample (n = 171) of SETs serving students with EBD in self-contained classes. We describe findings in terms of the working conditions that SETs experienced—social (e.g., administrator support, paraprofessionals, professional development) and logistical (e.g., instructional grouping, instructional resources, planning time)—providing implications for research, policy, and practice.

Orsati, F. T. & Causton-Theoharis, J. (2013). Challenging control: inclusive teachers’ and teaching assistants’ discourse on students with challenging behavior. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 17(5), 507-525.

Describing students with disabilities as presenting ‘challenging behaviour’ is common in US schools. The purpose of this paper is to reveal the discourse utilised by teachers in order to understand their beliefs and practices surrounding young students considered to present challenging behaviour. This study examines teachers’ language in four ways: which discourses they draw from, the consequences of engaging in the discourse on practice, what maintains the use of such discourse and finally the possibilities for change. The critical discourse analysis unpacked that teachers begin labelling the students as challenging, not the behaviour. Consequences of this thinking emerged as teachers excluded the students, or what they consider ‘the problems’ from the classroom. Exclusion was found to be the ‘necessary’ response when control is prioritised in the classroom. In sum, the discourse of control is available for shaping how teachers understand and support students. Developing a relationship with students empowers teachers to see past the labels, the control discourse, and truly support students in inclusive classrooms. Finally, implications for practice are shared to improve the experience of inclusive education for both student and teacher.

Page, A., Ferrett, R.** (2018). Teacher aides’ views and experiences on the inclusion of students with autism: Perspectives across two countries. The International Education Journal: Comparative Perspectives Vol. 17(2), 60-76.

The human rights issue of inclusion in education has been the focus of numerous legislative and policy documents around the world. The right of a student with additional needs to access their local school and participate in mainstream classrooms has been mandated for numerous years across many nations. Increasing numbers of students with additional needs who are included in the regular classroom are diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) but reports indicate the understanding of ASD students remains low. This study investigates the views and experiences of teacher aides (TAs) who support students with ASD in mainstream settings in two countries: the Cook Islands (CI) and New South Wales (NSW), Australia. The research addressed the growing international use of TAs and their roles in inclusive classrooms, and the need to understand contemporary practices from comparative global perspectives. Results indicate many similarities between TA views and experiences on the inclusion of students with ASD in NSW and the CI. The findings are discussed in terms of recommendations to enhance the efficacy and practices of TAs in supporting students with ASD in the inclusive classroom.

Pedersen S. J., Cooley, P. D., & Rottier, C. R.** (2014). Physical educators’ efficacy in utilizing paraprofessionals in inclusive education. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 39(10).

Inclusion of students with disabilities (SwD) in Australian health and physical education (HPE) classes is on the rise. Reasonable adjustment to assist inclusive practice is often accomplished through the use of teaching assistants, or paraprofessionals. While this practice is commonly understood within the classroom, this approach remains obscure in the HPE setting. The purpose of this study was to explore how Australian HPE teachers utilise paraprofessionals when teaching SwD in inclusive environments. HPE teachers (N=14) completed an online questionnaire inquiring how paraprofessionals are being used and the strategies they are using to develop working relationships with paraprofessionals. The HPE teachers in our sample generally had a favourable attitudes towards the paraprofessionals they have worked with, however a lack of appropriate training and HPE curriculum knowledge were highlighted as deficient areas that may have an adverse effect on the overall HPE environment. While the paraprofessionals were recognised as providing a level of support that was generally to the satisfaction of the HPE teachers, the HPE teachers’ consistently provided areas in which the paraprofessional could improve. Strategies to foster this collaborative working relationship were also investigated, and the primary finding dealt with adequate reciprocal communication. With the move toward inclusive practice in Australian public schools this is an area that warrants further investigation so all students can benefit from a healthy and productive HPE.

Radford J., Bosanquet, P., Webster, R., & Blatchford, P.** (2015). Scaffolding learning for indepedence: Clarifying teacher and teacher assistant roles for children with special educational needs. Learning and instruction, 36, 1-10.

Support for children with special educational needs (SEN) in inclusive classrooms, in many countries, continues to be provided by teaching assistants (TAs). Whilst they frequently take responsibility for instruction, they are rarely adequately trained and prepared. As TAs have ample opportunities for individualised and group interactions, this paper recommends scaffolding as the key theory to inform their practice. From a large dataset of interactions in mathematics and literacy lessons, episodes of TA scaffolding were selected. Using conversation analysis, three scaffolding roles emerged: 1) a support role that maintained learner engagement, on-task behaviour and motivation; 2) a repair function that focused on learning and fostered independence when children were in difficulty; and c) a heuristic role that encouraged students to use their own learning strategies. The paper concludes with implications for trainers and managers and how teachers can support TAs in implementing each role.

Riggs C.G.** (2001). 20 ways to work effectively with paraeducators in inclusive settings. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37(2), 114-117.

Increasing numbers of students with a wide range of special education needs are receiving their education and special services within general education classrooms. For these students to reap the social and educational benefits of the general education setting, they may require various in-class supports. One effective means of providing support is through the employment of paraeducators. Paraeducators can provide a critical link for inclusion programs, working with individual students and assisting teachers in meeting the needs of all students. These paraeducators should be seen as participating members of the class and the instructional team. This means acknowlodging the importance of paraeducators and developing infrastructures that support their work. The following strategies may aid teachers and administrators in their efforts to include paraeducators as vital and effective inclusion team members.

Riggs C. G., & Mueller, P. H.** (2001). Employment and utilization of paraeducators in inclusive settings. The Journal of Special Education, 35(1), 54-62.

This study investigated paraeducators’ (N=758) experiences in inclusive educational settings, including administrative policies, job responsibilities, training, retention, and relationships with members of the school community. Findings indicated a need for more paraeducator training and the importance of relationships within the school. Recommendations are offered for policymakers, administrators, teachers, institutions of higher education, and paraeducators.

Rose R., Shevlin, M.** (2020). Support provision for students with special educational needs in Irish primary schools. Journal of Researh in Special Educational Needs, 20(1), 51-63.

The provision of support for students with special educational needs in schools is seen as a critical factor in the development of inclusive education. The means through which support is provided, continues to be based upon assumptions that individualized learning approaches may remediate learning difficulties. This paper reports findings from a longitudinal study of provision for students with special educational needs conducted in The Republic of Ireland. The authors identify in‐class and withdrawal approaches to support and consider the impact and efficacy of these. It is suggested that the withdrawal of students from class continues to be a dominant model, and that this approach has limitations and may not be conducive to the promotion of inclusive practice. Drawing upon data obtained through interviews with service users (students and parents/carers), and service providers (teachers, paraprofessionals, principals), and those gained from a national survey, the authors present the authentic voices of individuals to illustrate the experiences and opinions of those directly involved in special education in schools.

Russel C. S., Allday, R. A., & Duhon, G. J.** (2015). Effects of increasing distance of a one-on-one paraprofessional on student engagement. Education and Treatment of Children, 38(2), 193-210.

This study sought to maintain task engagement of a 4-year-old student with developmental disabilities included in a pre-K classroom while decreasing reliance of one-on-one support from a paraprofessional. To accomplish these goals, a withdrawal design (A-B-A) with a nested changing-criterion design was used to withdraw paraprofessional proximity. A cue was provided to the paraprofessional as an indicator of when to engage with and withdraw proximity from the student. Momentary time sampling procedures were used to measure task engagement during group circle time and proximity between student and paraprofessional. Results showed that task engagement was maintained at a level comparable to peers without disabilities, while proximity less than 0.9 m from the student was reduced from 95% to 18% of intervals.

Russell, A., Webster, R., & Blatchford, P. (2012). Maximizing the impact of teaching assistants: Guidance for School leaders and teachers. London: Routledge.

Teaching assistants have become an integral part of classroom life, yet pioneering research by the authors has shown that school leaders and teachers are not making the most of this valued resource. Results from the Deployment and Impact of Support Staff (DISS) project showed that the more support pupils received from teaching assistants, the less academic progress they made. Yet it is not decisions made by the teaching assistants themselves, but decisions made by school leaders and teachers about how their support staff are used and prepared, which explains these provocative results. Prompted by the wake-up call the DISS project findings provided, this timely book of guidance will help school leaders and teachers in primary and secondary schools improve the way they use teaching assistants, and will add real value to what can be achieved in the classroom. Based on the authors’ collaborative work with schools in the Effective Deployment of Teaching Assistants (EDTA) project, this book provides essential, practical tools and classroom-tested strategies that will allow schools to conduct a fundamental review of current practice and provides a framework for reforming teaching assistant deployment and preparation, and the way they interact with pupils.

Rutherford, G. (2012). In, out or somewhere in between: Disabled students’ and teacher aides’ experiences of school. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 16(8), 757-774.

Disabled students’ entry to the (compulsory) education system in New Zealand is often conditional upon the presence of untrained teacher aides, who are frequently regarded as the ‘solution to inclusion’. This widespread practice has occurred within a research and policy void, despite the growing body of international research literature that contests its efficacy and equity. Drawing from the findings of a qualitative study, the purpose of this paper is to develop an understanding of the school experiences of disabled students, from their and teacher aides’ perspectives. Interpreted within a framework of current disability, social justice and sociology of childhood theorising, the findings are presented as a continuum of educational contexts, in which students (and aides) were (1) fully included in all aspects of school, (2) partly included/assimilated in aspects of school life, and (3) excluded from regular school. The findings are consistent with those of international research in illuminating the pivotal, complex and ambiguous role that aides play in both helping and hindering disabled students’ educational presence, participation and achievement. The paper concludes with an outline of changes that may be instrumental in bringing about a more inclusive education system for all students.

Saddler, H. (2013). Researching the influence of teaching assistants on the learning of pupils identified with special educational needs in mainstream primary schools: exploring social inclusion. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 14(3), 145-152. 

As a result of their high contact time with children, particularly children identified with special educational needs, it is widely acknowledged that teaching assistants (TAs) have great influence on pupils’ education (Balshaw). However, recent research into the impact of TAs on pupils’ learning has questioned TAs’ usefulness in improving pupils’ learning (Blatchford, Bassett and Brown; Higgins). This paper argues that TAs’ influence on pupils’ education has not yet been researched effectively. Previous research has primarily focused on determining TAs’ influence on pupils’ achievement in terms of academic outcomes and has neglected to explore social outcomes. Two interconnected literature bases are reviewed in this paper; the current research exploring TAs’ role and influence on pupils’ learning is first explored, followed by a critical discussion of the literature regarding the process of social inclusion in mainstream primary schools. This paper concludes that for TAs’ influence on pupils’ learning to be effectively researched, TAs’ influence on the process of social inclusion must be researched within mainstream primary schools.

Sam, A. M., Cox, A. W., Savage, M. N., Waters, V., Odom, S. L. (2019). Disseminating information on evidence-based practices for children and youth with autism spectrum disorder: AFIRM. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 1-10, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-03945-x.

Comprehensive reviews of the research literature have identified that focused intervention practices for children and youth with autism spectrum disorder have evidence of producing positive developmental and learning outcomes. The Autism Focused Intervention Resources and Modules (AFIRM) project has translated evidence-based practices identified by Wong et al. (Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 45(7):1951–1966, 2015) into online learning modules. The purpose of this paper is to describe (1) the process for translating the research literature into practical information that practitioners can use, (2) its dissemination through a freely accessible website, (3) the use of the modules by over 64,500 users located in the United States and abroad, (4) knowledge gained as a result of completing the modules, and (5) consumers’ evaluations of modules usefulness and relevance.

Sharma, U., & Salend, S. (2016). Teaching assistants in inclusive classrooms: A systematic analysis of international research. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 41(8), 118-134.

This article reviewed international data from English-language peer-reviewed studies on the use of TAs in inclusive classrooms from the past 10 years concerning: (a) the roles of TAs; (b) the impact of TAs on students, educators, and inclusive education; and (c) the factors that influence the performance of TAs. These studies suggest that unclear professional roles, limited communication and opportunities for collaboration and training for TAs and teachers contribute to TAs assuming significant instructional, classroom management, and socialization roles, and providing ineffective and separate instruction that inadvertently undermine the inclusion, learning, socialization and independence of students with disabilities and the pedagogical roles of their teachers. Recommendations to inform decisions about whether to employ TAs and ways to enhance the efficacy and the practices of TAs and the professionals who work with them are discussed as well as the limitations of this review and implications for future research.

Sobeck, E.E., Robertson, R., Smith, J.** (2019). The effects of didactic instruction and performance feedback on paraeducator implementation of behavior support strategies in inclusive settings. The Journal of Special Education.

Many paraeducators have no formal education beyond high school and are provided with minimal training once on the job. Furthermore, as more schools turn to inclusionary practices, the impetus for highly qualified paraeducators becomes more important. However, little research has examined efficient ways to train paraeducators who work in inclusive classrooms. Through an adapted alternating treatments design (AATD), the general and comparative effects of two prominent training approaches were assessed: didactic instruction and performance feedback. Analysis of these approaches on paraeducators’ use of positive behavior support strategies in inclusive settings revealed that with an equal amount of training time for each approach, performance feedback consistently produced stronger immediate and maintained effects than didactic instruction.

Strain P.S. Wilson, K., Dunlap, G.** (2011). Prevent-teach-reinforce: Addressing problems behaviors of students with autism in general education classrooms. Behavioral Disorders, 36(3), 160-171.

Children with autism and other disabilities are often prohibited from participating in inclusive educational environments due to the occurrence of problem behaviors. In this study, a standardized model for individualizing procedures of behavior support , Prevent-Teach-Reinforce (PTR), was evaluated in general education settings with three elementary school students with autism spectrum disorders and serious problem behaviors. A multiple baseline across students design was used to test the effects of PTR on the occurrence of problem behaviors and academic engagement. Results indicated that problem behaviors were reduced and engagement was increased for all of the participants. The findings are discussed in relation to the importance and the challenges of implementation fidelity and effective behavior support in general education settings.

Suleymanov, F. (2016). Relationship between teacher assistant support and academic achievements of exceptional students in inclusive education. The Online Journal of New Horizons in Education, 6(2), 93-100.

Through qualitative research this study investigated the relationship between teacher assistant support and academic achievements of exceptional students in Azerbaijan which also suggests universal implication. With semi-structured interview the researcher looked at the above-mentioned relationship through class teachers’ eyes and with observation through his own eyes. The findings clearly imply that there is definitely a strong relationship between teacher assistant performance and academic development of students with special educational needs. However, involvement of assistant teachers into inclusion might lead to isolation within classes if they take superior position to class teachers. For the sake of effective start and progress of inclusive practice, education reforms should be implemented in order to increase class teachers’ capacity in order to enable them to lead inclusive education.

Suter, J. C., Giangreco, M. F., & Bruhl, S. A. D. (2019). Special education personnel absences in inclusion-oriented schools: Implications for building effective service delivery models. Remedial and Special Education. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/0741932519865617

This study explored relationships between special education personnel absences and demographic, policy, and practice variables to identify potential actions that could increase access to qualified personnel and continuity of instruction. Findings from 51 inclusion-oriented schools indicated that special educators and special education paraprofessionals were absent 12 days per year on average. Special educator absences were correlated with variables amenable to action by school leaders including special educator school density (i.e., ratio of special educators in full-time equivalents to total school enrollment) and special services concentration (i.e., ratio of special educators to special education paraprofessionals in full-time equivalents). Special education paraprofessional absences were not correlated with these variables. Implications for practice and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Suter, J. C., & Giangreco, M. F. (2009). Numbers that count: Exploring special education and paraprofessional service delivery in inclusion-oriented schools. Journal of Special Education, 43(2), 81-93.

This study explores key indicators of special education service delivery based on responses from 92 special educators and 36 administrators in 19 Vermont schools. Special educators reported on their work, the work of paraprofessionals they supervised, and 103 students with disabilities who were receiving one-to-one paraprofessional supports within general education classes. Findings indicate that (a) many special educators have large caseloads, (b) there are substantially more paraprofessionals than special educators, and © more than half of all special education paraprofessionals are assigned to students with disabilities one-to-one. Combined, these factors indicate that schools employed models of service delivery for students with disabilities that are substantially supported by paraprofessionals, thus raising concerns about students’ access to a free, appropriate public education. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Tompkins, R. H., Ratcliff, N., Jones, C., Vaden, S. M., Hunt, G., & Chase, H. (2012). The myth of the foolproof script: Can paraprofessionals effectively improve kindergarten student achievement using a scripted phonics program? Early Years: An International Journal of Research and Development, 32(3), 313-323.

This study examined the implementation of a scripted phonics program taught by paraprofessionals in kindergarten classrooms in a local school district. Two research questions were investigated: (a) Can paraprofessionals with no prior training in phonics effectively implement a scripted phonics program for struggling kindergartners? and (b) Did fidelity to the script predict higher student test scores at the end of the teaching cycle? After 96 observations, researchers found that paraprofessionals did not demonstrate fidelity to the script, often supplying students with erroneous phonetic examples, and that, overall, students’ phonemic knowledge scores did not correlate with fidelity to the scripted program.

Veck, W. (2009). From an exclusionary to an inclusive understanding of educational difficulties and educational space: Implications for the learning support assistant’s role. Oxford Review of Education, 35(1), 41-56.

This paper argues that before Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) can begin to contribute to the realization of inclusive possibilities in and for education, critical attention must be given to the ways educational difficulties and space are considered and produced within educational institutions. A detailed study of a sixth form college in the south of England is drawn upon to elucidate the ways in which fixed and exclusionary perspectives on educational difficulties can entwine with prescriptive views of and approaches to educational space to marginalize LSAs and the students who received their support. Inclusive conceptualizations of both educational difficulties and space are developed to illuminate the potential of the LSAs to make unique and useful contributors to educational institutions.

Vickerman P., & Blundell, M. (2012). English learning support assistant’s experiences of including children with special educational needs in physical education. Eurepean Journal of Special Needs Education.

According to Blatchford, learning support assistants (LSA) in schools within England comprise of a quarter of their workforce. In recent years, the inclusion of children with special educational needs (SEN) in mainstream school settings has seen significant rises. Furthermore, the English government has raised expectations on the amount of physical education (PE) and school sport young people should engage in. This study examined the views, opinions and experiences of LSAs within England in relation to their perceived competence and confidence in supporting children with SEN in PE. Previous studies by Smith and Green, Morley et al. and Vickerman have noted widespread lack of training and professional development not only for LSAs, but also for PE teachers. Research by Morley et al. also indicates LSAs are more prevalent in other areas of the school curriculum than PE. This study surveyed 500 LSAs via a questionnaire in primary, secondary and special schools in England with a response rate of 142 (28.4%). This was followed up with interviews. The study found 63.3% of LSAs had received generic SEN training, whilst only 5.5% had received PE specific training. Of the 5.5% who received PE specific training 70.5% found it useful. Findings indicate best practice occurred when LSAs and PE teachers worked collaboratively in pedagogical planning and delivery. A model of effective LSA support for children with SEN in PE is proposed through which government and schools should consider adopting this model as a mechanism for reflecting, refining and delivering effective PE.

Viktorin, J. (2018). Teacher assistant in the inclusive school environment. The Educational Review, USA, 2(6), 320-329.

The literature review deals with the issue of a teacher assistant for pupils with special educational needs in the inclusive school environment, especially the preferred level of education of teacher assistants, qualification assumptions, risks associated with improper involvement of assistants in teaching and the quality and intensity of cooperation between a teacher and a teacher assistant. An analysis of selected studies was used according to two basic thematic criteria: a teacher assistant for pupils with special educational needs and the inclusive school environment. The results of the study have shown that the intensive cooperation of a teacher assistant with a teacher, systematic preparation for lessons and a collective evaluation of assistants’ previous work are the most important preconditions for the effective performance. Other factors for the successful teacher assistant’s work are an appropriate level of education, knowledge, helpful approach to pupils, empathy and tolerance.

Wadsworth D. E. & Knight, D. (1996). Paraprofessionals: The bridge to successful full inclusion. Intervention in School and Clinic, 31(3), 166-171.

This article offers six training suggestions for preparing paraprofessionals to work successfully with students having disabilities in an inclusive setting. These include providing preservice training through a centralized interdisciplinary training team, modeling the use of appropriate behavior management techniques, and communicating the importance of team collaboration. (DB)

Walker, V. L. & Smith, C. G. (2015). Training paraprofessionals to support students with disabilities: A literature review. Exceptionality, 23(3), 170-191.

The purpose of this literature review is to describe intervention research studies in which paraprofessionals received training applicable to student with disabilities. Thirty studies were systematically reviewed to identify (a) characteristics of study participants and settings, (b) characteristics of paraprofessional training and paraprofessional-implemented intervention evaluated within these studies, (c) quality of the studies, and (d) implications for practice and areas for future research. Overall, paraprofessional training and subsequent intervention with students yielded positive outcomes. Training sessions typically were delivered by workshops, lectures, or classes and classroom-based training. However, numerous studies failed to demonstrate characteristics of study quality.

Webster, R., De Boer, A. (2019). Teaching assistants: their role in the inclusion, education and achievement of pupils with special educational needs. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 34(3), 404-407.

The long-term, international trend towards the inclusion of pupils with special educational needs (SEN) has been accompanied and enabled by an increase in the employment and deployment of a paraprofessional workforce, known variously as teaching assistants, teacher aides and paraeducators. Australia, Italy, Sweden, Canada, Finland, Germany, Hong Kong, Iceland, Ireland, Malta, New Zealand, South Africa, the United States and the United Kingdom have all experienced large increases in this section of their education workforces (Giangreco, Doyle, and Suter 2014)

Webster, R., Blatchford, P., & Russell, A. (2012). Challenging and changing how schools use teaching assistants: Findings from the Effective Deployment of Teaching Assistants project. School Leadership & Management, 33(1), 170-191.

Following research on the negative impact of support from teaching assistants (TAs) on pupils’ academic progress, there was a clear need for schools to fundamentally reassess the way they use TAs. This article reports on findings from a collaborative project aimed at developing and evaluating alternative strategies to using TAs. Practitioner-led development trials were structured using a coherent and empirically sound model. Over the year of the intervention, schools made marked improvements to the ways TAs were deployed in classrooms, prepared for lessons and interacted with pupils. The study led to much-needed guidance on how to review current practice and make substantive changes to TA use, as part of wider school improvement.

Weiss, M.S. (1994). Cultural brokerage and school aides: a success story in education. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 25(3), 336-346.

This article will relate one of our more insightful interdisciplinary concepts-the marginal individual as cultural broker-to the world of public schooling and, in the process, allow us to better comprehend the contributions of a much maligned and misunderstood educational employee, the school aide.

Werts** M. G., Wolery, M., Snyder, E., & Caldwell, N.** (1996). Teachers’ perceptions of the supports critical to the success of inclusion programs. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 21(1), 9-21.

A survey of 164 Pennsylvania general and special education teachers and 1,430 elementary educators nationwide examined their attitudes concerning supports needed for the successful inclusion of students with disabilities. Teachers perceived a need for training, help from personnel outside the classroom, and in-class help such as paraprofessionals. (DB)

Wehmeyer, M. L. (2019). Strengths-based approached to educating all learners with disabilities - beyond special education. Teachers College Press, Columbia University.

Westover J. M., & Martin, E. J. (2014). Performance feedback, paraeducators, and literacy instruction for students with significant disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities, 18(4), 364-381.

Literacy skills are fundamental for all learners. For students with significant disabilities, strong literacy skills provide a gateway to generative communication, genuine friendships, improved access to academic opportunities, access to information technology, and future employment opportunities. Unfortunately, many educators lack the knowledge to design or implement appropriate evidence-based literacy instruction for students with significant disabilities. Furthermore, students with significant disabilities often receive the majority of their instruction from paraeducators. This single-subject design study examined the effects of performance feedback on the delivery skills of paraeducators during systematic and explicit literacy instruction for students with significant disabilities. The specific skills targeted for feedback were planned opportunities for student responses and correct academic responses. Findings suggested that delivery of feedback on performance resulted in increased pacing, accuracy in student responses, and subsequent attainment of literacy skills for students with significant disabilities. Implications for the use of performance feedback as an evaluation and training tool for increasing effective instructional practices are provided.

Whitburn B. (2013). The dissection of paraprofessional support in inclusive education: You’re in mainstream with a chaperone. Australasian Journal of Special Education, 37(2), 147-161.

The experiences of young people with disabilities of inclusive schooling are largely underresearched. This paper reports recent findings of a small-scale Australian qualitative study, in which secondary students with vision impairment spoke about their experiences of receiving paraprofessional support. Two overarching themes emerged from this study: ‘light’ and ‘heavy’ paraprofessional support. The results presented here demonstrate that participants described that support personnel upheld the strong arm of the special education tradition, which was manifestly detrimental to their inclusion. Raw data is presented to elucidate the emergent themes, and to explain the various pedagogical and general support roles of class and special educators in eliminating the need for direct paraprofessional presence in lessons. The light and heavy model of support is also examined in terms of how it fits into the complexity of the education discourse and the young people’s own aspirations for full inclusion.

Wolery M., Martin, C.G., Schroeder, C., Huffman, K., Venn, M.L., Holcombe, A., Brookfield, J., & Fleming, L. (1994). Employment of educators in preschool mainstreaming: A survey of general early educators. Journal of Early Intervention, 18(1), 64-77.

This report describes a mail survey designed (a) to identify the extent to which various types of educators (paraprofessionals, early childhood educators, elementary school educators, and special educators) were employed in early education programs and (b to describe patterns in that employment. Respondents represented a variety of programs (Head Start, public school prekindergarten, public school kindergarten, and community preschool/child care) and were selected randomly from the nine U.S. Bureau of the Census regions. The results indicate that (a) higher percentages of programs employed full-time rather than part-time paraprofessional and professional staff; (b) higher percentages of Head Start programs employed paraprofessionals, particularly Child-Development- Associate-degree staff, than did other program types, and the lowest percentage of employment of paraprofessionals occurred in public school kindergarten programs; © more mainstreamed programs employed paraprofessionals than did nonmainstreamed programs, but the differences were slight; (d) higher percentages of programs employed bachelor’s-degree teachers; (e) nearly equal percentages of programs employed elementary teachers as employed early childhood teachers, and fewer programs employed special education teachers; and (f) about three fourths of the mainstreamed programs did not employ special education teachers.

Chopra, R. (2009). What do parents need to know about paraeducators? Exceptional Parent, 39(9), 22-23.

Paraeducators are now recognized as important members of the learning and teaching team alongside teachers and other professional educators in schools. Other commonly used titles for paraeducators are Paraprofessional, Instructional Assistant, Educational Assistant, Teaching Assistant, Instructional Aide, and Aide. This article provides useful information about appropriate utilization of paraeducators to ensure quality education for children with disabilities. The article covers the answers to some of the questions that exceptional parents frequently ask with regards to paraeducators.

Chopra R., French, N. K. (2004). Paraeducator relationships with parents of students with significant disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 25(4), 240-251.

This study examined the relationships between parents of students with significant disabilities and paraeducators who supported the students in inclusive educational settings. Results revealed five types of relationships between parents and paraeducators: close and personal friendship, routine limited interactions, routine extended interactions, tense relationship, and minimal relationship. Results indicated that it is important for paraeducators and parents to communicate because paraeducators spend more time with the students and gain insight into their academic and social behaviors. However, for paraeducator—parent relationships to be beneficial in the students’ education, they must remain within the limits and boundaries established by the teacher.

Doyle M. B. (1998). My child has a new shadow and it doesn’t resemble her! Disability Solutions, 3(1), 5-9.

This article is addressed to parents. The author suggests they ask why the teacher plans programs for children with without disabilities, but the paraeducator has the sole responsibility for the program of their child with a disability.

French N. K., Chopra, R. (1999). Parent perspectives on the roles of paraprofessionals. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24(4), 259-272.

Parents of children with severe handicaps receiving special education services in general classrooms were interviewed in focus groups about their perceptions of paraprofessionals who worked with their children. Mother’s had close bonds with paraprofessionals and identified with them. They believed that they were extremely dedicated people who worked with their children in caring and compassionate ways. Four roles emerged that the parents viewed the paraprofessionals fulfilling for their children. Those were a team member with the other educational professionals who served their children, a connector between home and school, a teacher, and a health care provider. Parents were also aware of issues/problems of paraeducators that have been identified on other literature. Specifically those were low pay, inadequate training, lack of respect, and high turnover. Interestingly, the issue of most concern was that of respect. Parents believed that lack of respect shown paraeducators reflected a lack of respect for their children.

Haas E.M. (1996). Necessity: The mother of intervention. A parent’s recommendation for the preparation and use of speech-language paraprofessionals in education settings. Journal of Children’s Communication Development, 18(1), 111-114.

This article describes the experiences and perspectives of one mother of a 12-year old daughter who is “medically fragile” and has “profound bilateral sensorineural hearing loss. After describing her daughter’s medical history, the author describes her daughter’s educational program (which is primarily homebound in rural regions of the country), and the family’s experiences with speech-language paraprofessionals. She discusses her own experiences providing unpaid speech-language paraprofessional services to her daughter as well her experience as a consumer of speech-language paraprofessional services. Given appropriate selection and training, the author advocates for the use of speech-language paraprofessionals as an appropriate option for serving homebound students with severe medical complications.

Lucero A. (2010). Dora’s program: a constructively marginalized paraeducator and her developmental biliteracy program. Anthropology and Education, 41(2), 126-143.

This article discusses findings from a case study of one elementary bilingual paraeducator, highlighting how the recognition of situated cultural capital enabled her to move from traditional to constructive marginality. I argue that her actions, the actions of others, and conditions within the school enabled her to use culturally relevant funds of knowledge in working with language- minority children. I conclude that the resources paraeducators bring can be harnessed when stakeholders are committed to doing so.

Mueller P.H. (2002). The paraeducator paradox. Exceptional Parent, 32(9), 64-67.

This article discusses the problems facing many paraeducators today – the fact that many of them are untrained and underpaid, yet are expected to provide instruction to the most complex or challenging students. The author discusses many factors in this discrepancy, including: role confusion, poor supervision, inadequate performance evaluation, lack of respect, and overuse. The author then offers possible solutions, or “promising practices”, to solve the paradox. While the article is directed towards parents, other people in the educational community may accomplish these solutions as well. They include: parent participation in the hiring process, developing comprehensive job descriptions, creation of relevant orientation and professional development, providing adequate supervision and ongoing support, developing an appropriate evaluation system, valuing the paraeducator as a part of the team, developing a process for determining when and if paraeducator support is necessary, and reviewing staff assignments.

Rueda R. S., DeNeve, C. (2001). How paraeducators build cultural bridges in diverse classrooms. Community Circle of Caring Journal, 3(2) 53-55.

In their efforts to accommodate cultural diversity in the classroom, schools have taken a variety of approaches – few of them ideal. In this article, the authors examine how educators can use the “funds of knowledge” available in culturally diverse families and communities to build bridges between the home cultures of students and the cultures of their schools.

Sheehey P. H., Wells, J. C., Ogata, V. F. (2018). Paraeducators’ perceptions and experiences working with diverse families. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 37(1), 44-51.

This investigation explored the interactions between paraeducators and the culturally and linguistically diverse families of their students with disabilities. Paraeducators (n = 117) attending a statewide professional development event responded to a questionnaire designed to explore their interactions with diverse parents and families. Results from the questionnaire allowed investigators to examine (a) the frequency and type of interactions between paraeducators and families in a small, primarily rural, Western state and (b) paraeducators’ perspectives on cultural and communication challenges related to working with diverse families. Paraeducators reported issues related to both communication and culture in their interactions with diverse families.

Werts M.G., Harris, S., Tillery, C.Y., Roark, R. (2004). What parents tell us about paraeducators. Remedial and Special Education, 25(4), 232-239.

This qualitative study included interviews with 28 parents (27 were mothers) regarding their perceptions of 24 different paraeducators who provided educational supports to their 28 children. These children included 22 boys and six girls, ages 4-12, with mild to moderate disabilities enrolled in inclusive classrooms in public schools in North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Oregon. Two interviews were conducted in person, the remaining 26 by telephone. Seventy-one percent of the students received one-to-one paraeducator support, the remaining 29% had classroom/group support from paraeducators. Prior to the parent interviews each paraeducator-student dyad was observed on 3 different days for one hour each day. Based on these observations, graphs were generated for each child indicating various aspects of the time and interactions (e.g., instructional grouping, types of interactions in the classroom, proximity). Each parent received a graph pertaining to his or her child prior to the interview (these observational data were not reported in this particular study; they will be discussed in a subsequent article).

Amendum, S. J., Liebfreund, M. D. (2019). Situated learning, professional development and early reading intervention: a mixed methods study. Journal of Education Research, DOI: 10.1080/00220671.2018.1523782.

The purpose of the present mixed methods study was to investigate a model of situated professional development and classroom-based early reading intervention implemented by the K–2 teaching teams from one school in a large urban/suburban school district in the southeastern United States. Twenty-nine teachers participated along with 125 students (74 intervention, 51 comparison). Student-level data sources included letter-word identification, word attack, spelling of sounds, and passage comprehension measures. Teacher-level data sources included semistructured interviews with each teacher, planning/recording documents, and pre/post questionnaires to gather information about teachers’ self-efficacy and demographics. The main conclusions were the following: (a) struggling readers eligible for intervention made significant gains, (b) struggling readers eligible for intervention made significantly greater gains than their nonstruggling peers did, (c) teachers’ reflections on the intervention and the situated professional development were generally positive, and (d) teachers’ self-efficacy for instructional strategies positively changed across the year.

Azad G. F., Locke, J., Downey, M. M., Xie, M., & Mandell, D. S. (2015). One-to-one assistant engagement in Autism support classrooms. Teacher Education and Special Education, 38(4) 337-346.

Classroom assistants and one-to-one assistants are an important part of the staffing structure of many autism support classrooms. Limited studies, however, have examined how one-to-one assistants spend their time in the classroom. The purpose of this article was to examine the percentage of time one-to-one assistants were engaged in instruction or support of students with autism and to determine the factors associated with their engagement. Direct observations were conducted in 46 autism support classrooms. Teachers and classroom assistants were engaged in instruction or support 98% and 91% of the time, respectively. One-to-one assistants were engaged in instruction or support 57% of the time. Classroom assistants’ and oneto-one assistants’ engagement was significantly correlated. The low rate of one-to-one assistants’ engagement suggests an inefficient use of an important resource.

Barnes T.N., Cipriano, C., Flynn, L., Rivers, S.E., & Xu, W (2018). Validating the recognizing excellence in learning and teaching (RELATE) tool for special education classrooms. Journal of Experimental Education, DOI: 10.1080/00220973.2018.1465383

We created the Recognizing Excellence in Learning and Teaching (RELATE) Tool for Special Education Classroom Observation to fill the need for a well-researched, observational tool that provides a more accurate lens for observing instructional and social processes in the self-contained, special education setting. In this study, we examined the factor structure, descriptive, and psychometric properties of the RELATE Tool using 47 special education classrooms. The results of the descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis, and generalizability and decision studies suggest that the tool’s reliability and validity are promising. We suggest modifications to one component of the tool to improve its psychometric properties.

Bingham G. E., Hall-Kenyon, K., Culatta, B. (2010). Systematic and engaging early literacy: Examining the effects of paraeducator implemented early literacy. Communication Disorders Quarterly.

This study examined the effect of explicit and engaging supplemental early literacy instruction on at-risk kindergarten children’s literacy development. Sixty-three kindergarten-aged children who had been ranked in the lowest 20th percentile on basic literacy skills participated in this study (38 treatment). Results reveal that children who received engaging and explicit supplemental instruction from a paraeducator performed significantly better on rhyming, alliteration, letter knowledge, letter-sound association, spelling, and blending tasks than children who received one-on-one instruction through a tutoring program. Findings highlight the important role that paraeducators can play in implementing explicit and engaging literacy curriculum that positively affects children’s development of early literacy skills.

Blatchford P., Bassett, P., Brown, P., Martin, C., Russell, A., & Webster, R. (2011). The impact of support staff on pupils’ “positive approaches to learning” and their academic progress. British Educational Research Journal, 37(3), 443-464.

In recent years there has been an unprecedented increase in support staff in schools in England and Wales. There were widespread expectations that this will be of benefit to teachers and pupils but there has been little systematic research to address the impact of support staff. This study used a naturalistic longitudinal design to investigate the relationship between the amount of support (measured by teacher estimates and systematic observation) and pupils’ ‘Positive Approaches to Learning’ (PAL) and academic progress. There were over 8000 pupils across two cohorts and seven age groups. Results on PAL were not straightforward by there was a consistent trend for those with most support to make less academic progress than similar pupils with less support, and this was not explained by characteristics of the pupils such as prior attainment or level of special educational need.

Blatchford P., Russell, A., & Webster, R. (2011). Reassessing the impact of teaching assistants: How research challenges practice and policy. London: Routledge.

Over the last decade, teaching assistants (TAs) have become an established part of everyday classroom life. TAs are often used by schools to help low-attaining pupils and those with special educational needs. Yet despite the huge rise in the number of TAs working in UK classrooms, very little is known about their impact on pupils.

This key and timely text examines the impact of TAs on pupils’ learning and behaviour, and on teachers and teaching. The authors present the provocative findings from the ground-breaking and seminal Deployment and Impact of Support Staff (DISS) project. This was the largest, most in-depth study ever to be carried out in this field. It critically examined the effect of TA support on the academic progress of 8,200 pupils, made extensive observations of nearly 700 pupils and over 100 TAs, and collected data from over 17,800 questionnaire responses and interviews with over 470 school staff and pupils.

This book reveals the extent to which the pupils in most need are let down by current classroom practice. The authors present a robust challenge to the current widespread practices concerning TA preparation, deployment and practice, structured around a conceptually and empirically strong explanatory framework. The authors go on to show how schools need to change if they are to realise the potential of TAs.

With serious implications not just for classroom practice, but also whole-school, local authority and government policy, this will be an indispensable text for primary, secondary and special schools, senior management teams, those involved in teacher training and professional development, policy-makers and academics.

Blatchford, P., Bassett, P., Brown, P., & Webster, R. (2009). The effect of support staff on pupil engagement and individual attention. British Educational Research Journal, 35(5), 661-686.

Despite an unprecedented increase in classroom-based support staff, there are confusing messages about their appropriate deployment and a lack of systematic evidence on their impact. This article addresses the deployment and impact on pupil engagement and individual attention of support staff, commonly known as teaching assistants (TAs), in terms of: (1) a comparison between TAs and teachers; (2) differences between pupils with and without special educational needs (SEN); and (3) differences between primary and secondary schools. Systematic observations of pupil behaviour in 49 primary and secondary schools showed that support staff presence resulted in increased individualisation of attention and overall teaching, easier classroom control, and that pupils showed more engagement and a more active role in interaction with adults. This supports teachers’ positive view of support staff, but their presence also meant pupils’ contact with teachers declined and at secondary level there was less individual and active interactions between teachers and pupils.

Boomer L. W. (1994). The utilization of paraprofessionals in programs for students with autism. Focus On Autistic Behavior, 9(2), 1-9.

This article points out that paraprofessionals have been involved in serving students with disabilities for nearly two centuries (documented since the work of Itard). It traces some of the historical changes in the roles of paraprofessionals to the present day. The article describes three roles of paraprofessionals, particularly as they relate to students with disabilities. These include the paraprofessional as: (a) “Data Manager”, (b) “Integration Facilitator”, and © “Functional Skills Facilitator”. Secondly, the article discusses three “current myths regarding the roles and responsibilities of paraprofessionals in light of changing service delivery systems” (p.2). These myths are identified as: Myth 1: “Students with autism require constant, one-to-one supervision by a paraprofessional” Myth 2: “Paraprofessionals should be able to work independently” Myth 3: “The paraprofessional will make the special education teacher’s job easier”

Bosanquet, P., Redford, J. (2018). Teaching assistant and pupil interactions: The role of repair and topic management in scaffolding learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1111/bjep.12231.

Teaching assistants (TAs) (also known as paraprofessionals or teacher aides) are present in schools in England in large numbers. They spend extensive time with pupils at risk of losing academic ground and those with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities (SEND) (Blatchford, Russell, & Webster, 2012). TAs becoming responsible for the education of the most vulnerable pupils are being increasingly seen across the world, for example in the United States, Finland, Australia, and Ireland (Giangreco, Doyle, & Suter, 2013; Webster & Blatchford, 2013). However, this is reported to have the effect of separating these pupils from the teacher and quantitative research has raised serious questions as to the overall impact of TA support on pupil progress, showing that there is a negative relationship between the numbers of hours of TA support and the progress of supported pupils in maths, English, and science (Blatchford et al., 2012).

Broer S. M., Doyle, M. B., & Giangreco, M. F. (2005) Perspectives of students with intellectual disabilities about their experiences with paraprofessional support. Exceptional Children, 71(4), 415-430.

This article report on a research study that interviewed young adults about their perception of the paraeducator support they had received while in high school. The study found that paraeducators were viewed both positively and negatively in four roles: (1) mother; (2) friend; (3) protector from bullying; and (4) primary teacher. The authors state that each role is a cause for concern and they provide recommendations for schools to minimize these effects increasing teacher involvement, listening to students with disabilities and including them more in decisions about their support needs.

Byers-Kirsch, J. (2009, March). Idaho’s design for paraeducator effectiveness. The School Administrator, 66(3), 40-41.

Cardinal, J. R., Gabrielsen, T. P., Young, E. L. (2017). Discrete trial teaching interventions for students with autism: web-based video modeling for paraprofessionals. Journal of Special Education Technology, 32(3), 138-148.

Delivering individualized learning interventions to students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is daunting for education professionals already stretched to capacity meeting needs of all of their students. Paraprofessionals (paraeducators) can assume integral roles in classroom support and management, but they may not be consistently trained in delivery of specialized intervention and instructional methods. We looked at using the technology of web-based video modeling with additional brief, in-person verbal corrective feedback to increase fidelity in paraprofessionals’ delivery of instruction using discrete trial teaching (DTT), an applied behavioral analysis (ABA) intervention for youth with ASD that has extensive research showing effectiveness. Students (n ¼ 4) were ages 6–11 with ASD and mild to moderate intellectual disability. Paraprofessionals (n ¼ 4) had minimal or no prior training in DTT or ABA. Over 4–6 weeks, results included large effect sizes for fidelity improvement of paraprofessionals and skill improvement in students. By the end of the intervention, all paraprofessionals reached 90% fidelity. Social validity was strongly endorsed by the paraprofessionals. These results have implications for schools with skilled personnel shortages, particularly in rural and other underserved areas.

Carter, E. W., Cushing, L. S., Clark, N. M., & Kennedy, C. H. (2005). Effects of peer support interventions on students’ access to the general curriculum and social interactions. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30(1), 15-25.

Peer support interventions are emerging as an effective alternative to traditional paraprofessional models for assisting students with moderate to severe disabilities to access the general curriculum. To contribute to the refinement of peer support interventions, we evaluated the impact of altering the number of participating peers on the social and academic outcomes of students with and without disabilities. Our findings indicated that changes in the configuration of peer support arrangements differentially affected student outcomes. Specifically, higher levels of social interaction and contact with the general curriculum were observed when students with disabilities worked with two peers relative to one peer. The additive benefits of a second peer provide guidance to educators concerning the implementation of peer support interventions in inclusive classrooms. (Contains 2 tables and 4 figures.)

Carter, E. W., & Pesko, M. J. (2008). Social validity of peer interaction intervention strategies in high school classrooms: Effectiveness, feasibility, and actual use. Exceptionality, 16(3) 156-173.

Promoting social interaction among students with severe disabilities and their general education peers has long been a prominent focus of research and policy efforts. We asked 81 educators to evaluate the effectiveness, feasibility, and actual use of 12 intervention strategies for increasing social interaction among high school students with and without severe disabilities. Although considerable variability was evident across individual strategies, general educators, special educators, and paraprofessionals generally shared similar views regarding the acceptability of these strategies. Recommendations for developing socially valid interventions for transition-age youth are discussed.

Causton-Theoharis, J. & Burdick, C. (2008). Paraprofessionals: Gatekeepers to authentic art production. Studies in Art Education, 49(3), 167-182.

Paraprofessionals are increasingly utilized in inclusive art classrooms to support the art production of students with disabilities. For this descriptive qualitative study, we observed 18 paraprofessionals across elementary, middle, and high school inclusive art classrooms in Central New York. The findings suggest that these support staff act as gatekeepers, either denying or allowing access to authentic art production by facilitating or impeding access to the art curriculum. Implications for practicing art teachers and art teacher preparation programs are included. (Contains 2 figures, 1 table and 1 footnote.)

Causton-Theoharis J.N., & Malmgren, K.W. (2005). Building bridges: Strategies to help paraprofessionals promote peer interactions. Teaching Exceptional Children, 37(6), 18-24.

Peer support interventions are emerging as an effective alternative to traditional paraprofessional models for assisting students with moderate to severe disabilities to access the general curriculum. To contribute to the further refinement of peer support interventions, we evaluated the impact of altering the number of participating peers on the social and academic outcomes of students with and without disabilities. Our findings indicated that changes in the configuration of peer support arrangements differentially impacted student outcomes. Specifically, higher levels of social interaction and contact with the general curriculum were observed when students with disabilities worked with two peers, relative to one peer. The additive benefits of a second peer provide guidance to educators concerning the implementation of peer support interventions in inclusive classrooms.

*Chopra, R.V., Carroll, D., & Manjack, S. (2018). Paraeducator Issues and Strategies for Supporting Students with Disabilities in Arts Education. In J. B. Crockett & S. M. Malley, Handbook of Arts Education and Special Education. New York: Routledge

Cooke N.L. Galloway, T.W., Kretlow, A.G. (2011). Impact of the script in a supplemental reading program on instructional opportunities for student practice of specified skills. Journal of Special Education, 45(1), 28-42.

Many educators are reluctant to use scripted instruction, reporting that scripts are mechanical in nature and only appropriate for low-level skills. This study sought to investigate the impact of a supplemental program’s script on the rate of on-task and off-task instructional opportunities offered by the instructor for students to practice the specific skills targeted in lesson exercises. Using a multiple-baseline across-participants design, four paraeducators delivered daily instruction, first in a nonscripted version of an explicit supplemental program and then in the scripted version of the same program, to 12 first-grade students identified at risk for reading failure. Upon introduction of the script, the rate of on-task instructional opportunities for student practice was substantially higher, and the rate of off-task instructional opportunities diminished. Both paraeducators and student participants preferred the scripted instruction.

Conroy, P. W. (2008). Paraprofessionals and students with visual impairments: Potential pitfalls and solutions. Re:View, 39(2), 43-55.

The use of paraprofessionals in all areas of special education has grown tremendously in the past decade (N. French, 2003). For the student with a visual impairment in the general education classroom to receive 1-to-1 assistance from a paraprofessional has become almost automatic (E. Forster & C. Holbrook, 2005). Although well-intentioned, this 1-to-1 assistance has had negative effects on the educational and social independence of students. The author discusses the pros and cons of assigning paraprofessionals to work in the general education classroom with students who are visually impaired and presents training, supervision, and peer support models as potential solutions to the problems that may arise from overreliance on paraprofessionals. The author also provides resources for further information.

Cushing L. S., Clark, N., Carter, E. W., & Kennedy, C. H. (2003). Peer supports and access to the general education curriculum. TASH Connections, 29(10), 8-11.

Douglas, S. N., Gerde, H. K. (2019). A strategy to support the communication of students with autism spectrum disorder. Intervention in School and Clinic.

Communication is an essential skill that develops in early childhood and links to later academic and social success. However, some children, such as those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), struggle to develop sufficient social communication skills and may require speech language therapy and targeted support from educators to achieve functional communication. Unfortunately, educators, including teachers and paraeducators, may have limited knowledge and skills to best support the social communication needs of students with ASD. Therefore, this article introduces a research-based strategy, POWR: Prepare, Offer, Wait, and Respond, that can be used by educators and peers to effectively enhance the social communication development of students with ASD. Research support and detailed guidelines regarding how communication partners (e.g., teachers, paraeducators, peers) can implement the POWR strategy are included.

Ernsperger L.A. (1998, Summer). Using a paraeducator to facilitate school reentry. Reaching Today’s Youth: Community Circle of Caring Journal, 2(4), 9-12.

This article tells the story of a paraeducator’s successful role in supporting an adolescent who returned to his home school following a residential placement. The story is told through the eyes of the school’s behavioral consultant and describes activities related to training, strategies for reducing dependence, and lessons learned from the experience. The author sites research that reports a high failure rate among students with severe behavioral and learning problems who return from residential placements to their neighborhood schools. The article concludes with an argument for more effective utilization of paraeducators to increase the success rate for students returning from residential placements.

Erwin E. (1996). Meaningful participation in early childhood general education: Exploring the use of natural supports and adaptive strategies. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 90, 400-411.

Findings: Provision of context cues, use of spontaneous events for teaching, verbal directions and feedback by staff, cues and feedback by peers as modeled by staff, and individual student-generated strategies such as use of familiar landmarks & signals served as successful natural support strategies for an inclusive preschool. “Hands-off” approach was emphasized meaning support was provided in nonintrusive ways and only when needed.

Farrell P., Alborz, A., Howes, A., Pearson, D. (2010). The impact of teaching assistants on improving pupils’ academic achievement in mainstream schools: A review of the literature. Educational Review, 62(4), 435-448.

This paper discusses key findings from one aspect of a systematic review of the literature carried out by the Inclusion Review Group at Manchester University, on behalf of the Evidence for Policy and Practice Information (EPPI) Centre. The specific focus of this element of the review was on the impact of teaching assistants (TAs) (or their equivalent) on improving pupils’ academic achievement that had been measured in some way before and after a period of intervention/support from a TA. The synthesis of findings from the review indicates that the academic achievements of primary aged pupils with identified difficulties in learning, typically in literacy, improve significantly following a period of targeted intervention from TAs. However findings from studies, where support is of a more general nature and not directed at pupils with identified difficulties, are more equivocal suggesting that the presence of TAs in mainstream classes may not have a positive impact on the achievements of all pupils. These findings have major implications for the ongoing training, management, support and deployment of TAs in mainstream schools.

Fasnerová, M. & Stolinská, D. P. (2018). Impact of teaching assistants on children’s adaptation to the school environment. Journal of Exceptional People, 13, 85-100.

The paper deals with children’s adaptation to the school environment in the context of the impact of teaching assistants and school club lecturers from the perspective of headteachers and employees of selected schools in the Olomouc Region.The research was carried out under the following project: ‘Inclusive education for the Olomouc Region’ (Ref. No. CZ.02.3.61/0.0/0.0/15_007/0000183) a part of which focused on children’s adaptation to the school environment. The first section presents the theoretical information concerning adaptation, inclusive education, and the position of the teaching assistant; the second section focuses on the methodological survey aimed at headteachers, teachers and teaching assistants. The objective is to identify the impact of these specialized personnel, reflect on their work content, and describe the level of their involvement in the teaching process and their overall usefulness. In the conclusion section the authors emphasize that their role is indispensable for many schools and supports pro-inclusive tendencies in working with children with special educational needs and children from different socio-cultural environments. Being of an informative nature, the paper is intended not only for the lay public, but also fora wide range of students and professionals, mainly of a primary, special and social education background.

Fetko E.E., Collins, B.C., Hager, K.D., Spriggs, A.D. (2013). Embedding science facts in leisure skill instruction conducted by peer tutors. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 48(3), 40-411.

This investigation evaluated the effectiveness of using peer tutors to teach a chained leisure skill (i.e., UNO card game) to three middle school students with disabilities using a simultaneous prompting procedure within a multiple probe design. The investigation also assessed whether the students with disabilities would acquire four unrelated science core content facts presented as nontargeted information during instructive feedback. Results indicated that all students met or made progress toward criterion on the leisure skill. In addition, two of the three students acquired all four core content facts.

Fried L., Konza, D., & Mulcahy, P. (2012). Paraprofessionals implementing a research-based reading intervention. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 17(1), 35-54.

In many schools in Australia students often begin their primary years with limited preparation for reading. ‘All hands on deck’ are required to ensure the best possible student success rate for learning to read. In this project, Education Assistants, often under-utilised in schools, were used to implement a reading intervention to struggling readers in years one to three. Education Assistants were trained to withdraw students in small groups and engage students in an explicit, systematic early reading program. The intervention was implemented in a cognitively and emotionally supportive manner and the Education Assistants were trained using autonomy support, collaboration and reflection. Results showed encouraging growth in reading skills for all student age groups compared to the rest of the class. The Education Assistants responded well to the initial and ongoing training processes, refining their teaching skills and the intervention over the period.

French N. K. & Lock, R.H. (2002). Maximize paraprofessional services for students with learning disabilities. Interventions in Schools and Clinic, 38(1), 50-55.

Twenty suggestions are provided for helping teachers to become more effective managers of paraprofessionals and to improve the ways paraprofessionals work with students with learning disabilities. These include: provide orientation; find out what the paraprofessionals’ work-style preferences are; assess the skills of the paraprofessional; observe and coach the paraprofessional; and delegate skillfully. (Contains 1 reference.) (CR)

Garwood J. D., Van Loan, C. L., Gessler Werts, M. (2018). Mindset of paraprofessionals serving students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Intervention in School and Clinic, 53(4), 206-211.

As schools across the United States move toward more inclusive models and as caseloads for special education teachers increase, special education paraprofessionals are being hired to fill service delivery gaps. Most often, paraprofessionals are asked to provide social and behavioral support to students with disabilities, and much of their time is spent in direct support of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Special education teachers have reported that students with emotional and behavioral disorders are some of the hardest to serve, and those working in this field have the highest rate of burnout. Although there has been increased recognition of the importance of mental health and wellbeing for special education teachers, little attention has been paid to paraprofessionals’ needs. Based on recommendations for special education teachers in the extant literature, 12 survival mindsets to be adopted by paraprofessionals are proposed that may prevent burnout by promoting greater resiliency, emotional wellbeing, and self-awareness.

Gerber S.B., Finn, J.D., Achilles, C.M., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2001). Teacher aides and students’ academic achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23(2), 123-143.

This article is based on a reanalysis of the Tennessee STAR report with regard to its findings on aides. It states that aides have no effect on students test scores and that students benefit academically if aides perform only clerical tasks. They do concede that it is also possible that teacher aides may provide important attention and support to specific students. This may be reflected in those students’ test scores, but not affect the class as a whole. It provides recommendations for courses of action and future research.

Giangreco M. F., Edelman, S. W., Broer, S. M., & Doyle, M. B. (2001). Paraprofessional support of students with disabilities: Literature from the past decade. Exceptional Children, 67(1), 45-63.

This article summarizes and analyzes a set of 43 pieces of professional literature pertaining to paraprofessional supports for students with disabilities published between 1991 and early 2000. Twenty-six nondatabased sources and 17 research studies were included. The findings identify topical gaps in the literature, review the major databased findings, and present implications for the field. The review concludes with suggestions for future research that emphasize the need for more student outcome data, conceptual alignment of roles, training, and supervision, and the exploration of alternatives to paraprofessional supports.

Giangreco M.F., Broer, S.M., & Edelman, S.W. (2002). “That was then, this is now!” Paraprofessional supports for students with disabilities in general education classrooms. Exceptionality, 10(1), 47-64.

Increasingly, paraprofessionals are being employed to support a wide array of students with disabilities in general education classrooms. This descriptive study, based on quantitative and qualitative data from 215 school personnel in 4 schools, provides a portrait of issues and concerns about paraprofessional supports that have implications for other schools. In addition to demographic and quantitative information about paraprofessionals’ roles, the study presents 7 themes based on interviews and observations in the schools. Each of the themes addresses a different aspect of the evolution of paraprofessionals services in these 4 schools. The 7 themes address (a) increases in paraprofessional services, (b) hiring challenges, © turnover, (d) paraprofessional role shift to instruction, (e) paraprofessional assignments, (f) insufficient training, and (g) academic skillfulness concerns. The study concludes with practical implications for schools and suggestions for future research, which focus on student outcomes.

Giangreco M.F., Broer, S.M., & Edelman, S.W. (2001). Teacher engagement with students with disabilities: Differences based on paraprofessional service delivery models. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 26, 75-86.

This study describes differences in teacher engagement identified within two approaches to providing paraprofessional supports in general education classrooms, program-based and one-on-one. Analysis of observed and reported experiences of 103 school personnel from four schools identified characteristics of teacher engagement and disengagement, involvement of special educators, and phenomena associated with teacher disengagement when one-on-one paraprofessional service delivery was used. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

Giangreco M. F., Broer S. M., & Edelman, S. W. (1999). The tip of the iceberg: Determining whether paraprofessional support is needed for students with disabilities in general education settings. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24(4), 280-290.

After presenting selected issues associated with employing paraprofessionals, this article extends the discussion on paraprofessional issues by exploring guidelines to assist teams in making decisions about paraprofessional supports. This includes both considerations for the appropriate use of paraprofessionals when assigned, as well as alternative support solutions. (Author/CR)

Giangreco M.F., Cichoski-Kelly, E., Backus, L., Edelman, S., Broer, S., CichoskiKelly, C., & Spinney, P. (1999, March). Developing a shared understanding: Paraeducator supports for students with disabilities in general education. TASH Newsletter, 25(1), 21-23.

Giangreco M.F. & Doyle, M.B. (2002). Students with disabilities and paraprofessional supports: Benefits, balance, and band-aids. Focus on Exceptional Children, 34 (7), 1-12.

Following a review of current paraprofessional literature and issues, this article addresses five contemporary questions that are within the sphere of control of school personnel, either individually or collectively, to improve paraprofessional supports for students with disabilities

• To what extent should paraprofessionals be teaching students with disabilities?
• What impact does the proximity of paraprofessionals have on students with disabilities?
• How does the utilization of paraprofessional support effect teacher engagement and why should it matter?
• How can authentic respect, appreciation, and acknowledgment of the important work of paraprofessionals be demonstrated?
• What can be done to improve paraprofessional supports schoolwide?

For each question, pertinent information from the literature is offered as well as implications for practice. In an interrelated fashion these five questions address the benefits associated with well-conceived paraprofessional supports and the balance of paraprofessional supports with supports provided by others (e.g., classroom teachers, special educators, related services providers, peers). This is set within a context that challenges the reader to consider whether our existing or proposed actions to improve paraprofessional supports offer viable solutions that truly accomplish what we intend for students with disabilities or whether they are merely band-aids.

Giangreco M.F., Edelman, S.W., & Broer, S.M. (2001). Respect, appreciation, and acknowledgement of paraprofessionals who support students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 67, 485-498.

This article describes the experiences of 103 school personnel, including classroom teachers, paraprofessionals, special educators, and administrators who worked in four schools, Grades K-12. Data were collected during 22 school visits and 56 individual interviews. Six themes were identified pertaining to how school personnel think about and act upon, issues of respect, appreciation, and acknowledgment of paraprofessionals who work in general education classrooms supporting students with and without disabilities. The themes included (a) nonmonetary signs and symbols of appreciation, (b) compensation, © being entrusted with important responsibilities, (d) noninstructional responsibilities, (e) wanting to be listened to, and (f) orientation and support. The article concludes with a discussion of implications for how these data might be applied in schools.

Giangreco M.F., Edelman, S., Luiselli, T.E., & MacFarland, S.Z.C. (1997). Helping or hovering? Effects of instructional assistant proximity on students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 64, 7-18.

This study presents data on the effects of the proximity of instructional assistants on students with multiple disabilities who are placed in general education classrooms. Based on extensive observations and interviews, analyses of the data highlighted eight major findings of educational significance, all related to proximity of instructional assistants. Categories of findings and discussion include (a) interference with ownership and responsibility by general educators, (b) separation from classmates, © dependence on adults, (d) impact on peer interactions, (e) limitations on receiving competent instruction, (f ) loss of personal control, (g) loss of gender identity, and (h) interference with instruction of other students. The article concludes with implications for practice related to policy development, training, classroom practices, and research.

Giangreco M.F., Yuan, S., McKenzie, B., Cameron, P., & Fialka, J. (2005). “Be careful what you wish for…” Five reasons to be concerned about the assignment of individual paraprofessionals. Teaching Exceptional Children, 37(5), 28-34.

Granger, J. D. & Grek, M. (2005). Struggling readers stretch their skills: Project maximizes use of paraprofessionals to teach reading. Journal of Staff Development, 26(3), 32-36.

In Florida, a group of paraprofessionals worked with students struggling to read at grade level. The students’ gains show that the intensive attention of these professionals to small groups of students can make a significant difference. This article presents a study about the effectiveness of paraprofessionals’ and teachers’ instruction for at-risk 1st graders. Thus, the study found that these 1st graders gained literacy skills when: (1) Participating paraprofessionals were carefully selected; (2) Paraprofessionals used an explicit research-based curriculum; and (3) The paraprofessionals took part in high-quality professional development.

Haegele, J.A., Sato, T, Zhu, X. & Kirk, T.N. (2019). Paraeducator support in integrated physical education as reflected by adults with visual impairments. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 36(1), 91-108.

The purpose of this study was to examine the reflections of adults with visual impairments regarding paraeducator support during their school-based integrated physical education. An interpretative phenomenological analysis research approach was used, and 9 adults (age 21–34 years; 8 women and 1 man) with visual impairments acted as participants. Semistructured audio-recorded telephone interviews and reflective field notes were sources of data. A 3-step analytic process was adopted for thematic development. Based on the data analysis, 3 interrelated themes emerged: “they wouldn’t let me participate”—restriction in the name of safety, “stuck out like a big tree in a field full of poppies”—unwanted social attention and isolation, and “I felt like they weren’t trained”—paraeducator disengagement and training needs. The themes highlight concerns expressed by the participants, such as the need for paraeducator training, that should be considered when using paraeducator support during physical education.

Hall L.J., & Macvean, M.L. (1997). Increases in the communicative behaviors of students with cerebral palsy as a result of feedback to, and the selection of goals by, paraprofessionals. Behaviour Change, 14(3), 174-184.

“Baseline observations revealed that the participating paraprofessionals rarely used prompts or set the occasion for the use of communication behaviours by the students with spastic quadriplegic cerebral palsy). Following intervention, or the selection of the type of prompting strategies and feedback on the frequency and effectiveness of their use of these strategies, all four paraprofessionals increased their level of prompting and, in general, met their self-selected goals. In addition, the target behaviours of all 3 students increased markedly after the introduction of the intervention.” (p. 182). Using a 5-point Likert-type scale, all integration assistants agreed or strongly agreed that “involvement in this research: (a) improved their abilities to facilitate communication skills of the students, (b) increased their confidence in their abilities to communicate with the student, and © increased the student’s ability to communicate.” (p. 182).

Hemmingsson H., Borell, L., & Gustavsson, A. (2003). Participation in school: School assistants creating opportunities and obstacles for pupils with disabilities. Occupational Therapy Journal of Research, 23(3), 88-98.

A study of 7 pupils aged 7-15 with physical disabilities found that school assistants could both facilitate and hinder student participation. Results suggest the need for awareness of priorities students place on social participation to ensure that effective and flexible support is available to students with disabilities. (Contains 42 references.) (JOW)

Hendrix, N.M., Vancel, S.M., Bruhn, A.L., Wise, S. & Kang, S (2018). Paraprofessional support and perceptions of a function-based classroom intervention. Preventing School Failure, 62(3), 214-228.

Paraprofessionals carry out behavior interventions for students with challenging behavior in inclusive classroom settings. Examination of paraprofessional involvement in behavior interventions informs how paraprofessionals may best support intervention implementation. The researchers used a withdrawal design to evaluate the effects of a multiple-component intervention primarily conducted by paraprofessionals in decreasing one sixth-grade student’s disruptive behavior. They then used a systematic approach to functional behavior assessment to identify the function of the student’s behavior and to design an intervention, which was tested using a single-subject design. Results demonstrated a functional relation between the student’s disruptive behavior and intervention. Further, the paraprofessionals and classroom teacher regarded the intervention as favorable, suggesting the intervention was feasible and suitable for the student. Discussion includes implications for practice and future research.

Hernandez C., Kulkarni, S.S. (2018). Social skills and students with moderate to severe disabilities: Can community based instruction help? Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals, Spring/Summer, 2018, 13(2), 6-22.

Students with disabilities are increasingly taught in general education settings, including mathematics classes. Too often, math teachers confront challenging behaviors of students with disabilities in inclusive settings. The authors present five efficient tools effective teachers can add to their repertoire to combat problem behaviors during group work that impact learning for students with problem behavior. In order to lead our students to proficiency in the concepts and procedures of mathematics, it is imperative that we have the behavior management skills to support our students in less structured environments like group work activities. In this article we highlight five research-based strategies that can be used to support some of the most challenging behaviors present in inclusive classrooms. Those five tools are assigning student to roles in group work, using proximity control with redirecting (directing student to be on-task), engaging students by using interest boosting techniques, conducting frequent checks for understanding, and delivering behavior-specific praise.

Hill C. (2003) The role of instructional assistants in regular classrooms: Are they influencing inclusive practices? Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 49(1), 98-100.

Observations were carried out in 10 regular elementary classrooms in Winnipeg (Manitoba) in which instructional assistants were assigned to students with severe disabilities for at least 2.5 hours per day. Instructional assistants were found to facilitate inclusive practices by interacting with regular and special education students together, providing support to whole-class activities, and promoting the independence of exceptional students. (SV)

Jenkins J.R., Vadasy, P.F., Firebaugh, M., & Profilet, C. (2000). Tutoring first-grade struggling readers in phonological reading skills. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15, 75-84.

Description of a tutoring program for struggling 1st grade readers focuses on use of Sound Partners, a program designed for non-teacher tutors. This program emphasizes basic phonological awareness and phonological reading skills. The article describes the program’s theoretical ancestry, application, research outcomes, and obstacles/solutions related to implementation. (Contains references.) (Author/DB)

Jones E., Larsen, R., Sudweeks, R.R., Young, K.R. & Gibb, G.S. (2018). Evaluating paraeducator-led reading interventions in elementary school: A multicutoff regression-discontinuity analysis. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, DOI:10.1080/19345747.2018.1481164.

A two-cutoff regression discontinuity design (RDD) was used to assign 321 students in grades 1 through 6 at a Title I elementary school to two types of Tier 2 reading interventions administered by paraeducators: (a) direct instruction (DI) and (b) computer-assisted instruction (CAI). Students scoring at or below a lower cutoff pretest score were assigned to the DI reading intervention. Students scoring between the lower cutoff score and an upper cutoff score on the pretest were assigned to a CAI reading intervention. Student reading ability was reassessed in January and May. Results indicated that the DI intervention was significantly more effective than the CAI interventions at the lower cutoff (p < .01). No significant treatment effect was detected at the upper cutoff, but the estimation power of the design at this cutoff was limited to medium-to-large effect size. Findings suggest that the DI intervention was superior to the CAI interventions for at-risk readers. Implications for practice, including fidelity of paraeducator implementation, are discussed.

Kaiser, L., Potvin, M., & Beach, C. (2020). Sensory-based interventions in the school setting: perspectives of paraeducators. The Open Journal of Occupational Therapy, 8(3), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.15453/ 2168-6408.1615.

The purpose of this study was to explore paraeducators’ perceptions of sensory-based interventions (SBIs). Paraeducators are frequently responsible for implementing SBIs to enhance a student’s ability to learn in school. Previous studies have explored the perceptions of teachers and occupational therapists, but as of yet, there are no published studies exploring the perceptions of paraeducators regarding the efficacy of SBIs.

Kotkin R. A. (1995). The Irvine paraprofessional program: Using paraprofessionals in serving students with ADHD. Intervention in School and Clinic, 30(4), 235-240.

This article presents a rationale for inclusion of students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in regular classrooms; identifies current problems with inclusive practices; and offers a model program, the Irvine Paraprofessional Program. This program focuses on the use of paraprofessional teacher assistants, inservice training on behavior modification, use of a token economy, and social skills training. (DB)Lacey, P. (2001). The role of learning support assistants in the inclusive learning of pupils with severe and profound learning difficulties.

Lacey P. (2001). The role of learning support assistants in the inclusive learning of pupils with severe and profound learning difficulties. Educational Review, 53(2), 157-167.

This paper presents findings from a study of the role played by learning support assistants (LSAs) in the inclusion of pupils with severe or profound learning difficulties. The data suggest that LSAs are of crucial importance in making this possible and supporting these pupils’ learning. The most effective LSAs supported groups of pupils rather than individuals, offered just the right amount of support, had time for planning and reporting back to teachers; and felt a valued part of the staff team.

Lane K., Carter, E. & Sisco, L. (2012). Paraprofessional involvement in self-determination instruction for students with high-incidence disabilities. Exceptional Children, 78(2), 237-251.

Although enhancing students’ self-determination is advocated as a central element of high-quality special education and transition services, little is known about the ways in which paraprofessionals are involved in promoting self-determination or the extent to which they share teachers’ views regarding its importance. The authors surveyed 223 paraprofessionals from 115 randomly selected public schools to examine their perspectives on promoting self-determination among students with high-incidence disabilities. Overall, paraprofessionals attributed high levels of importance to each of the 7 component elements of self-determination (i.e., choice making, decision making, problem solving, goal setting and attainment, self-advocacy and leadership, self-management and self-regulation, and self-awareness and self-knowledge). The extent to which paraprofessionals reported providing instruction addressing each of the 7 components of self-determination was moderate, with average ratings all slightly above the midpoint of the scale. This article presents implications for the involvement of paraprofessionals in supporting the development of self-determination among students with high-incidence disabilities, along with recommendations for future research.

Lane, K. L., Fletcher, T., Carter, E., Dejud, C., Delorenzo, J. (2007). Paraprofessional-led phonological awareness training with youngsters at-risk for reading and behavioral concerns. Remedial and Special Education, 28, 266–276.

This study examined the efficacy of a paraprofessionalled supplemental early intervention for first-grade students with poor early literacy skills and behavioral concerns. The goal was to determine if (a) the relatively brief intervention was effective in improving phonological skills, and (b) improvements in academic skills would be accompanied by behavioral and social improvements. The results indicated that the students in the treatment condition experienced significant, lasting increases in phonological awareness and moderate improvement in word attack skills. However, significant collateral effects on social and behavioral performance were not observed. Limitations and directions for future investigation are offered.

Leko, M. M., Roberts, C., et. al. (2019). Selecting evidence-based practices: what works for me. Intervention in School and Clinic.

As the special education research community continues to identify new evidence-based practices (EBP), educators will need to make choices regarding which EBPs to implement. This article provides educators with practical guidelines for selecting EBPs that will improve outcomes for students with learning disabilities (LD), emotional and behavior disorders (EBD), and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Among the factors for EBP consideration discussed are strength of evidence, cost, complexity and transferability, and contextual fit. By taking these factors (and others) into consideration, educators can make more informed decisions from the outset about which EBPs will work in their particular contexts, meet the specific needs of their students, and lead to long-term sustainability.

Lewis, K.C. (2005). Seen but not heard: ESEA and instructional aides in elementary education. Review of Research in Education, 29, 131-149.

I am very, very, very close with my kids … they’re my babies … I make it a point to really get to know my kids, to let them know how much I care, so when it gets in a situation that I need to be firm and that I need to be rough and tough on ’em they understand why. It’s not just… that it’s just a job to me. Because it’s not. I really do … I care about my kids. I care about all the kids in the building. (Olinthia, an instructional aide)

Logan, A. (2006). The role of the special needs assistant supporting pupils with special educational needs in Irish mainstream primary schools. Support for Learning, 21(2), 92-99.

In this article the author describes a small-scale study into the role of the special needs assistant (SNA) supporting the inclusion of pupils with learning difficulties in the Irish Republic. The findings regarding the perspectives of teachers, principals, SNAs, pupils supported by SNAs and their parents on the support offered to three pupils are also described. The actual (as distinct from the prescribed) role of SNAs, including the issue of SNAs working in a general rather than a pupil-specific capacity, and the nature of the SNA-teacher relationship are discussed. The main findings emerging from the data were that the role of the SNA is one of both education and care and that SNAs are a welcome support for inclusion. Issues emerging from the study include the need for effective communication and planning, shared understanding of the role and responsibilities of SNAs and ongoing monitoring of the way in which support is provided.

Malmgren, K.W., & Causton-Theoharis, J.N. (2006). Boy in the bubble: Effects of paraprofessional proximity and other pedagogical decisions on the interactions of a student with behavior disorders. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 20(4), 301-312.

Peer interactions are a critical component of learning; however, students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) are at particular risk of social isolation at school. As students with EBD are increasingly included in general education settings, a better understanding of what affects their interactions is needed. In this qualitative study, structured observations and semi-structured interviews were used to gain an understanding of how specific classroom environmental and pedagogical decisions (i.e., instructional groupings, overall classroom environment, task structure, and proximity of adults) affected the peer interactions of a 2nd-grade student with EBD who was educated in an inclusive classroom with the support of a full-time paraprofessional. Analysis revealed that close physical proximity of the paraprofessional significantly impeded the number of interactions experienced by the student. (Contains 1 table.)

Martella R.C., Marchand-Martella, N.E., Miller, T.L., Young, K.R., & Macfarlane, C.A. (1995). Teaching instructional aides and peer tutors to decrease problem behaviors in the classroom. Teaching Exceptional Children, 27(2), 53-56.

This article describes a systematic program that special education teachers can use to teach instructional aides and peer tutors to use effective teaching practices. The article specifically focuses on delivering appropriate instructional commands, providing specific praise, and using appropriate error correction procedures. (JDD)

McDonagh S. H., Fordham, L. A., Dillon-Wallace, J. A. (2014). The educational context and services of children with additional needs in their first years of school in Australia. Special Education Perspectives, 23(1), 29-41.

In Australia, children with additional needs are now primarily educated in mainstream regular classes and schools. While discussion has focused on teacher attitudes, teacher preparation and professional development to support the academic progress of children with additional needs, there is limited research examining the educational contexts and services provided to such children in Australian schools. This descriptive paper examines the educational contexts of 563 Australian children with additional needs, in reference to 3600 of their typically developing peers. Data in relation to educational setting, retention, prevalence of additional needs, access to specialist services, learning support, and individual programming are reported.

McDonnell J., Johnson, J. W., Polychronis, S., & Risen, T. (2002). Effects of embedded instruction on students with moderate disabilities enrolled in general education classes. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 37(4), 363-377.

Four students with moderate mental retardation were taught to read or define words on vocabulary lists of general education classes using embedded instruction. Results indicate that embedded instruction led to the acquisition and maintenance of the target skills. Paraprofessionals successfully implemented the embedded instruction in general education classes. (Contains references.) (Author/PB)

McDowell N., Budd, J. (2018). The perspectives of teachers and paraeducators on the relationship between classroom clutter and learning experiences for students with cerebral visual impairment. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 112(3), 248-260.

Structured abstract: Introduction: Cerebral visual impairment (CVI) typically affects children’s overall functioning in visually cluttered environments. This study aims to consider whether the removal of classroom clutter ameliorates visual problems and the associated behavioral difficulties for these children. Methods: Two classrooms at a special school were de-cluttered. Changes included: covering glass panels with thick black paper; hanging sheets over open shelving; creating areas of blank wall in front of the student to focus attention on work; removing unnecessary equipment and furniture; and taking down information on windows and walls, and that hanging from ceilings. Teachers, paraeducators, and students worked in these classrooms for two weeks, following typical daily routines. Observations by teachers and paraeducators of students’ behavior and learning experiences before and after de-cluttering were sought through interviews. Findings: The perspectives of the teachers and paraeducators were that de-cluttering had a positive effect on the students’ learning experiences and behavior and also on their own functioning. They also considered the fact that creation of learning spaces lined with black paper resulted in greater attention and focus, but that students continued to be distracted by the noise and movement of others. Discussion: The potential link between cluttered classrooms and students’ functioning and behavior indicates that visual clutter may amplify the visual difficulties associated with CVI and distract the students from learning activities, and is in line with current literature. Changes to classroom layouts that include specific areas for different learning activities, including “black hubs,” may therefore benefit students with CVI. Implications for practitioners: This pilot study suggests that the elimination of classroom clutter and the creation of black hub learning spaces enhances functioning and merits further investigation. A study that compares specific behaviors and performances, before and after implementation of de-cluttering strategies, might also determine whether the positive effects describedby the teachers can be further corroborated.

Metatia, O., & Cullen, C. (2018). “Bursting the assistance bubble”: Designing inclusive technology with children with mixed visual abilities. Proceeding of the 2018 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems (Paper No. 346). Montreal, PQ, Canada.

Children living with visual impairments (VIs) are increasingly educated in mainstream rather than special schools. But knowledge about the challenges they face in inclusive schooling environments and how to design technology to overcome them remains scarce. We report findings from a field study involving interviews and observations of educators and children with/without VIs in mainstream schools, in which we identified the “teaching assistant bubble” as a potential barrier to group learning, social play and independent mobility. We present co-design activities blending elements of future workshops, multisensory crafting, fictional inquiry and bodystorming, demonstrating that children with and without VIs can jointly lead design processes and explore design spaces reflective of mixed visual abilities and shared experiences. We extend previous research by characterising challenges and opportunities for improving inclusive education of children with VIs in mainstream schools, in terms of balancing assistance and independence, and reflect on the process and outcomes of co-designing with mixed-ability groups in this context.

Miller S. D. (2003). Partners-in-reading: Using classroom assistants to provide tutorial assistance to struggling first-grade readers. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 8 (3), 333-349.

Evaluated the feasibility of using classroom assistants to tutor 1st-grade struggling readers in a school with limited financial and personal resources. Comparison of intervention students, students in traditional tutoring, and control students indicated that, although equivalent at the year’s start, both intervention groups outperformed the control group at the end of the year, and students with classroom assistants outperformed the other two groups on reading comprehension. (SM)

Moore W. & Hammond, L. (2011). Using education assistants to help pave the road to literacy: Supporting oral language, letter-sound knowledge and phonemic awareness in the pre-primary year. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 16(2), 85-110.

Children with weak oral language skills are at risk of experiencing difficulty with early literacy acquisition. Intensive small group intervention during the pre-primary year has the potential to improve children’s success in developing emergent literacy skills. Education assistants are a potentially powerful resource for supporting students at educational risk. In this study, education assistants at four schools were trained to provide a daily half-hour emergent literacy program to pre-primary students with low oral language skills. The program focused on developing phonological awareness, letter-sound knowledge and vocabulary using both explicit and in-context (embedded) learning activities. The students undertaking the program made significant gains on early language and literacy measures. Case studies are presented that illustrate the strengths and limitations of the intervention for children and schools.

Mueller P.H., & Murphy, F.V. (2001). Determining when a student requires paraeducator support. Teaching Exceptional Children, 33 (6), 22-27.

This article outlines the rationale for developing a process to help Individualized Education Program teams determine when to assign paraeducators to support students with disabilities in general education classrooms. It describes a formal, decision-making model, its benefits, and its effects. A needs checklist and assistance matrix is provided. (Contains nine references.) (CR)

Nolan J.D. & Filter, K.F. (2012) A function-based classroom behavior intervention using non-contingent reinforcement plus response. Education and Treatment of Children 35(3), 419-430.

This study investigated the use of noncontingent reinforcement with response cost to reduce problem verbal and physical behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement in an internationally adopted, post-institutionalized student diagnosed with ADHD. Systematic direct observation was employed to measure behavior in a single-subject withdrawal design. Results indicate this function-based intervention was effective when used in a school and implemented with fidelity by a paraprofessional.

Phillips, C. (2007). What pertinent skills and strategies do paraeducators need in order to provide effective and meaningful support to a child with autism in public school classrooms? Education Masters. Paper 80.

The rates of children diagnosed with autism in the United States today are steadily increasing. Children with autism are enrolling in the public school system in increasing numbers, and many require support from paraeducators. Engaging a child with autism in learning can be a tremendous challenge that requires specialized skills and strategies. Therefore paraeducators need specialized skills and strategies when working with a student with Autism Spectrum Disorder to insure meaningful and effective support for students. Exactly what skills and strategies do paraeducators need? A review of the literature as well as research is undertaken to examine what autism is, the role of a special education paraprofessional, current skill set standards for special education paraeducators, and identifying the most recent skills and strategies, if any, to engage a child with autism being researched. Controversy concerning the potential over-utilization of paraeducators was identified. The intent is to synthesize the information and data collected to develop a deeper understanding of what exactly a paraeducator needs to know and be able to do when working in the classroom with children with autism.

Probst K.M. Walker, V.L. (2017). Using the system of least prompts to teach personal hygiene skills to a high school student with comorbid visual impairment and autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 111(6), 511-525.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a workshop and follow-up coaching sessions on the implementation of the system of least prompts procedure by classroom team members and explored whether this intervention resulted in personal hygiene skill acquisition by a male high school student with comorbid visual impairment and autism spectrum disorder. Methods: Implementation fidelity data were analyzed descriptively through visual analysis. A multiple baseline design across behaviors was utilized to evaluate the effectiveness of the system of least prompts procedure on student skill acquisition. Results: Implementation fidelity was high and increased over the course of the study: paraeducator 1: 93.9% (range, 70 to 100%); paraeducator 2: 78.2% (range, 11 to 90%); and special education teacher: 94.1% (range, 35 to 100%). In addition, the student’s independent performance improved from baseline to intervention across each targeted skill, with Tau-U scores as follows: cleaning the augmentative and alternative communication device: 0.78; washing hands: 0.76; and brushing teeth: 0.92. Classroom team members found both the training procedures and the system of least promptsintervention to be of value and effective. Discussion: During intervention, classroom team members implemented the system of least prompts with fidelity and the student mastered each skill. These results are promising and add to the significantly limited literature on instructional interventions for students with comorbid visual impairment and autism spectrum disorder. Implications for practitioners: Classroom team members can effectively be taught to use the system of least prompts with students with comorbid visual impairment and autism spectrum disorder. Furthermore, the intervention might be used to increase independent functioning for students with these comorbid conditions.

Robertson K., Chamberlain, B., Kasari, C. (2003). General education teachers’ relationship with included students with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(2), 123-130.

A study involving 187 children from second- and third-grade inclusive classrooms, 12 with autism, and 12 general education teachers, found included students with autism formed multidimensional relationships with their general education teachers. These relationships were associated with student’s display of behavior problems and level of inclusion in the class. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Rossetti, Z. S. & Goesling, D.P. (2010). Paraeducators’ roles in facilitating friendships between secondary students with and without autism spectrum disorders or developmental disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 42(6), 64-70.

Much has been written on the roles and responsibilities of paraeducators in inclusive classrooms related to instruction, behavioral support, and their supervision by general and special educators. Paraeducators are defined as school support staff who work under the direction of a certified teacher and assist students with instruction, social/emotional/behavioral skills and sometimes personal care. Paraeducators are also known by terms such as teacher assistant, aide and paraprofessional. Few authors have focused primarily on the specific opportunities for paraeducators to help facilitate friendships between students without disabilities and students labeled with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or other developmental disabilities, especially at the high school level. This article reviews several strategies and specific considerations for their systematic implementation that were observed by the authors and used successfully by paraeducators in multiple high school settings.

Rubie-Davies, C. M., Blatchford, P., Webster, R., Koutsoubou, M., & Bassett, P. (2010). Enhancing learning? A comparison of teacher and teaching assistant interactions with pupils. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 21(4), 429-449.

Rutherford G. (2011). Doing Right By Teacher Aides, Students with Disabilities, and Relational Social Justice. Harvard Educational Review, 81(1), 95-118.

In this article, Gill Rutherford seeks to understand, from the perspectives of teacher aides, the influence of their work on the school experiences of New Zealand students with disabilities. Rutherford contributes to a growing body of international research regarding the role of teacher aides that documents the complex and ambiguous nature of their work. Ironically, given the injustice of assigning unqualified teacher aides to students whose learning support requirements (through no fault of their own) often challenge teachers, the findings of the study suggest that aides may contribute to the development of a more just education by virtue of their relationships with students with disabilities. Teacher aides’ knowing and caring about students in terms of their humanity and competence resulted in their recognizing and addressing injustices experienced by students. In acting on students’ behalf, in “doing right by” each student, these aides enabled students to enact their formal right to education. The study findings, interpreted within a framework of relational social justice, add another dimension to what has already been documented in research literature about the paradoxical nature of teacher aides’ work.

Rutherford, G. (2009). Curriculum matters for all students? Understanding curriculum from the perspective of disabled students and teacher aides. Curriculum Matters, 5, 90-107.

Schenker, R., Coster, W., & Parush, S. (2006) Personal assistance, adaptations, and participation in students with cerebral palsy mainstreamed in elementary schools. Disability and Rehabilitation, 28, 1061-1069.

Schofield, K.E., Ryan, A.D., Stroinski, C. (2017). Student-inflicted injuries to staff in schools: comparing risk between educators and non-educators. Injury Prevention, Published Online First: 27 October 2017. doi: 10.1136/injuryprev-2017-042472.

Student-inflicted injury to staff in the educational services sector is a growing concern. Studies on violence have focused on teachers as victims, but less is known about injuries to other employee groups, particularly educational assistants. Inequities may be present, as educational assistants and noneducators may not have the same wage, benefits, training and employment protections available to them as professional educators. We identified risk factors for student-related injury and their characteristics among employees in school districts.

Shukla S., Kennedy, C.H., & Cushing, L.S. (1999). Intermediate school students with severe disabilities: Supporting their education in general education classrooms. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1(3), 130-140.

Skar L., & Tamm, M. (2001). My assistant and I: Disabled children’s and adolescents’ roles and relationships to their assistants. Disability and Society, 16, 917-931.

Vadasy P.F., Sanders, E.A., Jenkins, J.R., & Peyton, J.A. (2002). Timing and intensity of tutoring: A closer look at the conditions for effective early literacy tutoring. Learning Disabilities: Research and Practice, 17(4), 227-241.

A study compared students at risk for reading disabilities who were provided phonics-based instruction in first grade (n=13), students tutored in comprehension skills in second grade (n=10), and students tutored in both grades (n=26). Students tutored only in first grade performed better than those also tutored in second grade. (Contains references.) (CR)

Vadasy, P.F., Jenkins, J.R., & Poole, K. (2000). Effects of tutoring in phonological and early reading skills on students at risk for reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 579-590.

Twenty-three first-graders at risk for learning disabilities received one-to-one tutoring from noncertified tutors for 30 minutes, 4 days a week, for one school year. Tutoring included instruction in phonological skills, explicit decoding, writing, spelling, and reading phonically controlled text. Participants significantly outperformed controls on measures of reading, spelling, and decoding. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Vadasy, P.F., Jenkins, J.R., Antil, L. R., Wayne, S.K., & O’Connor, R. E. (1997). The effectiveness of one-to-one tutoring by community tutors for at-risk beginning readers. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, 20, 126-139.

Twenty at-risk first graders received 30 minutes of individual instruction from community tutors four days a week for up to 23 weeks. Subjects outperformed the control group on all reading, decoding, spelling and segmenting, and writing measures. Tutors who implemented the program with a high degree of fidelity achieved significant effect sizes in each reading skill area. (Author/DB)

Vadasy, P.F., Jenkins, J.R., Antil, L. R., Wayne, S.K., & O’Connor, R. E. (1997). Community-based early reading intervention for at-risk first graders. Learning Disabilities: Research and Practice, 12, 29-39.

A study of 17 first-graders identified at high risk for a reading disability investigated the effects of community tutors on reading performance. When compared to the performance of matched controls, the children performed better on spelling and segmentation but not on reading. Skills declined at the second-grade follow-up evaluation. (CR)

Vadasy P.F. Sanders, E.A. (2008). Repeated reading intervention: Outcomes and interactions with readers’ skills and classroom instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(2), 272-290.

This study examined effects of a repeated reading intervention, Quick Reads, with incidental word-level scaffolding instruction. Second- and third-grade students with passage-reading fluency performance between the 10th and 60th percentiles were randomly assigned to dyads, which were in turn randomly assigned to treatment (paired tutoring, n = 82) or control (no tutoring, n = 80) conditions. Paraeducators tutored dyads for 30 min per day, 4 days per week, for 15 weeks (November–March). At midintervention, most teachers with students in the study were formally observed during their literacy blocks. Multilevel modeling was used to test for direct treatment effects on pretest–posttest gains as well as to test for unique treatment effects after classroom oral text reading time, 2 pretests, and corresponding interactions were accounted for. Model results revealed both direct and unique treatment effects on gains in word reading and fluency. Moreover, complex interactions between group, oral text reading time, and pretests were also detected, suggesting that pretest skills should be taken into account when considering repeated reading instruction for 2nd and 3rd graders with low to average passage-reading fluency.

Vadasy, P.F., Sanders, E.A., & Peyton, J.A. (2006). Code-oriented instruction for kindergarten students at risk for reading difficulties: A randomized field trial with paraeducator implementers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 508-528.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of code-oriented supplemental instruction for kindergarten students at risk for reading difficulties. Paraeducators were trained to provide 18 weeks of explicit instruction in phonemic skills and the alphabetic code. Students identified by their teachers meeting study eligibility criteria were randomly assigned to 2 groups: individual supplemental instruction and control. Students were pretested in December, midtested, and posttested in May-June of kindergarten. At posttest, treatment students significantly outperformed controls on measures of reading accuracy, reading efficiency, oral reading fluency, and developmental spelling. Treatment students had significantly higher linear growth rates in phonemic awareness and alphabetic knowledge during the kindergarten treatment. At a 1-year follow-up, significant group differences remained in reading accuracy and efficiency. Ethical challenges of longitudinal intervention research are discussed. Findings have policy implications for making supplemental instruction in critical early reading skills available.

Vadasy, P.F., Sanders, E.A., & Peyton, J.A. (2006). Paraeducator-supplemented instruction in structural analysis with text reading practice for second and third graders at risk for reading problems. Remedial and Special Education, 27(6), 365-378.

Two studies – one quasi-experimental and one randomized experiment – were designed to evaluate the effectiveness of supplemental instruction in structural analysis and oral reading practice for second – and third-grade students with below-average word reading skills. Individual instruction was provided by trained paraeducators in single- and multiletter phoneme-grapheme correspondences; structural analysis of inflected, affixed, and multi-syllable words; exception word reading; and scaffolded oral reading practice. Both studies revealed short-term word level and fluency effects.

Vadasy, P.F., Sanders, E.A., & Peyton, J.A. (2005). Relative Effectiveness of Reading Practice or Word-Level Instruction in Supplemental Tutoring: How Text Matters. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 364-380.

This quasi-experimental study examined the relative effectiveness of time allocated to either intensive decoding instruction or oral text reading practice in phonics based tutoring sessions. Subjects were 57 first graders who scored in the lowest quartile in reading skills at pretest in fall of grade one. Subjects were matched on a pretest composite to form equal groups: reading practice, word study, and controls. Paraeducator tutors were trained to provide individual instruction in one of the treatments. Treatment students were tutored for 30 min a day, 4 days a week for an average 44 hours of instruction. Mean fidelity ratings based on an average of 20 observations per tutor were 95% for both treatments. Tutored students in both treatment groups significantly outperformed controls at posttest in reading accuracy, reading comprehension, passage reading fluency, and spelling. The reading practice group performed significantly higher at posttest in passage reading fluency (rate) and accuracy, supporting the benefits of oral reading practice in combination with explicit phonics instruction.

Vadasy, P.F., Sanders, E.A., & Tudor, S. (2007). Effectiveness of paraeducator-supplemented individual instruction: Beyond basic decoding skills. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40(6), 508-525.

A total of 46 children in Grades 2 and 3 with low word-level skills were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups that received supplemental phonics-based reading instruction. One group received intervention October through March (21.5 hours), and one group served as a control from October through March and later received intervention March through May (17.5 hours). Paraeducators trained in a standard treatment protocol provided individual instruction for 30 min per day, 4 days per week. At the March posttest, the early treatment (ET; n = 23) group outperformed the controls (late treatment, LT; n = 20) on reading accuracy and passage fluency. Across both groups, second graders outperformed third graders on these same measures. At the 3-month follow-up, the ET group showed no evidence of decline in reading accuracy, passage fluency, or words spelled; however, 3rd-grade ET students had significantly higher spelling skills compared to 2nd graders. The LT group demonstrated significant growth during their intervention in reading accuracy and spelling, but not passage fluency. When we compared the ET and LT groups on their gains per instructional hour, we found that the ET group made significantly greater gains than the LT group across all 3 measures. The results support the value of paraeducator-supplemented reading instruction for students below grade level in word identification and reading fluency.

van Bysterveldt, A., Westerveld, M., & Garvis, S. (2019). Parents’ and teacher aides’ perceptions and expectations of the language and communication abilities of children with Down syndrome. Speech, Language, and Hearing, 22(3), 160-171. doi: 10.1080/2050571X.2018.1515288

Children with Down syndrome experience significant and persistent challenges with language and communication and typically receive additional support to facilitate their learning and inclusion at school. This study explored the perceptions and expectations of parents and teacher aides, in relation to language and communication for 10 school-age children with Down syndrome. Individual semi-structured interviews with parents and teacher aides were conducted and thematic analysis undertaken. Results indicated both similarities and differences in the parents’ and teacher aides’ stories. Both groups shared an expectation of further communication and language development and identified speech intelligibility as a barrier to learning and inclusion. However, results revealed a lack of clarity around the teacher aide’s role, responsibility and expertise for the supporting of language and communication of these children at school, and parents indicated dissatisfaction with the speech-language therapy support received. Teacher aides identified their focus on managing behaviour to support social and academic inclusion. We argue for better communication between all stakeholders involved in the ongoing language and communication support of school-age children with Down syndrome.

Walter, U. M. Petr, C. G. (2006). Lessons from the research on paraprofessionals for attendant care in children’s mental health. Community Mental Health Journal, 42(5), 459-475.

Watkins S., Clark, T., Strong, C., & Barringer, D. (1994). The effectiveness of an intervener model of services for young deaf-blind children. American Annals of the Deaf, 139 (4), 404-409.

“This article discusses a naturalistic approach to providing developmental, home-based services for young children who are deaf-blind. Simply stated, this approach is patterned after the one-to-one services provided by Annie Sullivan to Helen Keller. The services are called the Intervener Model (p. 404). “The Intervener Model focuses on a paraprofessional called an intervener who provides services to infants and young children who are deaf-blind and their families” (p. 404). The model was develop by the SKI*HI Institute in Utah. After additional description of the Intervener Model the remainder of the article provides a brief summary of four studies: (1) the development of children who are deaf-blind who receive intervener services, (2) intervener effects on communication and self-stimulation behaviors of deaf-blind children, (3) comparison of children and parents who did and did not receive intervener services, and (4) qualitative effects of the intervener on service recipients. In the article’s summary, the authors state, “The services of interveners in Utah enabled young children who are deaf-blind to make greater developmental progress during the services than before and to make greater developmental gains than would have been expected due to maturation alone.” (p 409).

Webster R., & Blatchford, P. (2014). Worlds apart? The nature and quality of the educational experiences of pupils with a statement for special educational needs in mainstream primary schools. British Journal of Educational Research, 41(2), 324-342.

Findings from the Deployment and Impact of Support Staff (DISS) project showed that support from teaching assistants (TAs) had a strong negative impact on the academic progress of pupils, and this applied particularly to pupils with a statement of special educational needs (SEN). Although the DISS project found that such pupils experienced less contact with teachers, little is known about school- and classroom-level decision-making relating to provision. This paper addresses the nature and quality of the educational experiences of pupils with statements, and who has responsibility for putting in place and delivering provision for these pupils within schools. Results come from the Making a Statement (MAST) project, which tracked the educational experiences of 48 9- and 10-year-old pupils with the highest level of SEN, attending mainstream primary schools in England. The study involved the thematic analysis of 48 detailed pupil case studies, drawing on interview, documentation and field note data. Results are presented in terms of four key themes: (1) the explicit and subtle forms of separation these pupils experience daily; (2) the high level of pedagogical decision-making TAs have for pupils with statements; (3) the impoverished pedagogical diet pupils with statements receive, compared to their peers; and (4) the gaps in teachers’ and TAs’ knowledge concerning meeting the needs of pupils with statements. The findings have particular implications for the deployment of TAs and for provision for pupils with SEN, with and without statements.

Welch M., Richards, G., Okada, T., Richards, J., & Prescott, S. (1995). A consultation and paraprofessional pull-in system of service delivery: A report on student outcomes and teacher satisfaction. Remedial and Special Education, 16(1), 16-28.

This article presents results of evaluation of an educational partnership approach, the Consultation and Paraprofessional Pull-In System (CAPPS), for serving at-risk students and those with mild academic disabilities. The program synthesizes the resource/consulting teacher role, pull-in programming, and utilization of paraprofessionals for service delivery. Quantitative and qualitative evaluation findings are detailed. (Author/DB)

Werts M.G., Zigmond, N., & Leeper, D.C. (2001) Paraprofessional proximity and academic engagement: Students with disabilities in primary aged classrooms. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 36(4). 424-440.

A study involving three students (ages 7-9) with severe disabilities found they were academically engaged during a significantly higher number of intervals when a paraprofessional was positioned close to the student. Students and paraprofessionals were more likely to be verbally interactive than physically when the student was actively academically engaged. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Westover J. M., & Martin, E. J. (2014). Performance feedback, paraeducators, and literacy instruction for students with significant disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities, 18(4), 364-381.

Literacy skills are fundamental for all learners. For students with significant disabilities, strong literacy skills provide a gateway to generative communication, genuine friendships, improved access to academic opportunities, access to information technology, and future employment opportunities. Unfortunately, many educators lack the knowledge to design or implement appropriate evidence-based literacy instruction for students with significant disabilities. Furthermore, students with significant disabilities often receive the majority of their instruction from paraeducators. This single-subject design study examined the effects of performance feedback on the delivery skills of paraeducators during systematic and explicit literacy instruction for students with significant disabilities. The specific skills targeted for feedback were planned opportunities for student responses and correct academic responses. Findings suggested that delivery of feedback on performance resulted in increased pacing, accuracy in student responses, and subsequent attainment of literacy skills for students with significant disabilities. Implications for the use of performance feedback as an evaluation and training tool for increasing effective instructional practices are provided.

Young B., Simpson, R., Smith Myles, B., and Kamps, D.M. (1997). An examination of paraprofessional involvement in supporting students with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 12(1), 31-38, 48.

This study investigated paraeducator proximity to students with autism in general education classrooms. They found that the teacher initiated contact with student most when paraeducator was more than 2 ft. away from students or when out of the room, but initiated contact with student less than 1% of the time when paraeducator was closer than 2 ft. away. However, paraeducators initiated no interactions with student 75% of the observed time. In fact, 82% of the time no one initiated contact. The use of gestures or cueing was observed less than 1% of the time – a problem because all students had difficulty with verbal directions and needed cues and prompts. In spite of this, students were on task appropriate amounts of time – most often when working with a peer. Their conclusion was that maybe the most appropriate role of the paraeducator with children with autism is to facilitate peer interaction.

Zabel, T. A., Gray, R. M., Gardner, J., & Ackerman, J. (2005). Use of school-based one-to-one aides for children following traumatic brain injury: A proposed practice model. Physical Disabilities: Education and Related Services 24(1), 5-22.

One-to-one aides can be an important intervention resource for the reintegration of children into school following traumatic brain injury (TBI). School-based one-to-one aides are typically paraprofessionals assigned to monitor children with TBI throughout the school day. This intervention allows for a continuous feedback and reinforcement schedule to address problematic behavior. Potential drawbacks of this resource, however, include cost, role confusion, and increased dependence upon the one-to-one aide to maintain classroom functioning. Intervention models and goal-planning strategies are needed to help ensure that one-to-one aides intervene in a cost-effective, time-limited manner that contribute to the reacquisition of functional classroom skills as well as decreased reliance upon the one-to-one aide for behavioral control. We present a model for conceptualizing the use of one-to-one aides in the classroom, and discuss intervention strategies to address common problems observed in children following TBI. This model is based upon our combined experience in school reentry following TBI as well as a current understanding of executive functioning, with an emphasis on addressing potential needs in behavioral regulation and goal-directed action. Additionally, general guidelines for the utilization of one-to-one aide in the classroom are proposed. (Contains 6 figures.)

Andzik N. R., Cannella-Malone, H. I. (2019). Practitioner implementation of communication intervention with students with complex communication needs. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 124(5), 395-410.

This study evaluated the effects of a pyramidal training approach that used an expert trainer who taught teachers how to train their paraeducators. Three special education teachers were taught to train four paraeducators to provide students with intellectual and developmental disabilities opportunities to initiate (OTI). A multiple baseline design across participants was used to evaluate the rate and fidelity that paraeducators provided OTI and least to most prompting strategies with students. Rates increased from 0 to an average of .58 per minute. Fidelity of implementation increased from 0% to an average of 94.5%. Maintenance data were recorded for three paraeducators. Schools should consider using this cost- and time-effective training model with staff.

Ashbaker B. & Morgan, J. (2012). Team Players and Team Managers: Special Educators Working with Paraeducators to Support Inclusive Classrooms. Creative Education, 3, 322-327.

This paper summarizes recommendations from a selection of international research literature urging teachers to take the initiative in their own classrooms to invite paraeducators to participate fully as team players in collaborative work. In US classrooms paraeducators (teacher aides/teacher assistants) have long been making valuable contributions in providing education services to students with a variety of needs. The literature documents change in their roles. Legislation has influenced their required qualifications—although legislation still refers to them as paraprofessionals. While some researchers have cast doubt on whether paraeducators are truly effective in their assigned roles, others have warned that the education system is over-reliant on them. In response to this changing perspective, teacher educators must revise programs to better prepare teacher candidates to effectively team with paraeducators. Personnel developers and school administrators must provide inservice training for a generation of teachers who have received little if any training in this area.

Basford, E., Butt, G. & Newton, R. (2017). To what extent are teaching assistants really managed?: I was thrown in the deep end, really; I just had to more or less get on with it. School Leadership & Management, 37(3), 288-310.

The main aim of this research was to secure a better understanding of how local authorities (LAs), senior leadership teams (SLTs) and teachers in state schools perceive their responsibilities for the deployment, leadership and management of teaching assistants (TAs). Current research in the field – some of which has been highly influential on policy – has largely focused on aspects of TA performance and pupil attainment. Importantly, we have chosen to investigate how TAs and SLTs themselves describe their experiences of management. TAs, teachers, senior leaders in primary schools and LA advisors, across two LAs, were surveyed. Based on 55 questionnaire responses, 23 interviews and 2 focus groups we found evidence of a dislocation of management priorities for effective TA deployment. What emerged was a strong sense of ‘otherness’ felt by many TAs, who believed themselves to be dissociated from their own management. We conclude that TAs make up a workforce that appears to be closely managed but which is in fact often poorly led, resulting in feelings of detachment.

Biggs, E. E., Gibson, C. B., Carter, E. W. (2018). Developing that balance: preparing and supporting special education teachers to work with paraprofessionals. Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children, Article first published online: March 27, 2018

The prominence of paraprofessionals in the education of students with severe disabilities highlights the importance of ensuring special education teachers provide effective supervision and support. The authors conducted in-depth individual interviews with members of nine educational teams—a total of 22 teachers and paraprofessionals—to identify (a) the competencies they consider important for special education teachers to work effectively with paraprofessionals and (b) their recommendations for equipping teachers to develop these competencies. Participants identified 10 competencies addressing three areas contributing to balanced leadership: knowledge, skills, and dispositions. They also recommended eight avenues for leadership development spanning three broad pathways: university-based preparation, school/district support, and personal development. The authors’ findings suggest the need to embed development of these competencies within existing training and support programs for teachers. The authors offer recommendations for future research and practice targeting teacher development in these areas.

Capizzi A. M., Da Fonte, M. A. (2012). Supporting paraeducators through a collaborative classroom support plan. Focus on Exceptional Children, 44(6).

Paraeducators, also known as teacher aides, paraprofessionals, and educational or instructional assistants, have become increasingly vital participants in school communities. They provide support in many capacities in schools. Their roles may include working one-on-onc with students in the classroom and supporting teachers and students throughout the day in varying activities. Some common activities are delivering lessons, supporting self-care, creating materials, collecting data, managing behavior, supervising the lunchroom, helping out in the library, or even riding the bus with students (Ashbaker & Morgan, 2006; May & Marozas, 1981). Although paraeducators are expected to complete these various tasks, they receive little or no training prior to starting their positions. In addition, the teachers who supervise paraeducators are often unprepared or untrained to work with or provide paraeducators needed training once they begin their work in the school setting.

Carnahan, C. R., Williamson, P., Clarke, L., & Sorensen, R. (2009). A systematic approach for supporting paraeducators in educational settings: A guide for teachers. Teaching Exceptional Children, 41(5), 34-43.

Paraeducators provide important support and instruction to children in educational settings. As classroom leaders, general education and special education teachers must provide quality supervision and professional development for the paraeducators working in their classrooms. Despite the infusion of paraeducators in educational settings over the past several decades, issues continue to exist concerning the supervision and professional development of these individuals in school settings. Many teacher education programs emphasize strategies for classroom organization and managing student behavior, but few offer meaningful coursework or guidance to prepare teachers for supervising other adults. This disconnect often occurs because teacher preparation preservice instructors have limited, if any, experience working in schools and directly supervising paraeducators. Their supervision experience is often limited to discussing hypothetical situations that are not contextually based. Thus, teachers, especially those who serve students with more intense needs, report collaboration with and supervision of paraeducators and other adults as challenging aspects of their first years in the classroom. In this article, the authors describe a systematic approach for teachers, which includes processes for: (1) supervising staff training; (2) inservice strategies; and (3) problem-solving strategies. The authors suggest that a systematic approach minimizes challenges that go along with supervising adults in the classroom. In addition, these processes have the possibility for establishing a productive learning environment for educators and students. (Contains 7 figures.)

Chopra, R. V., & Uitto, D. J. (2015) Programming and planning within a multifaceted classroom. In D.K. Chambers (Ed.), Working with teaching assistants and other support staff for inclusive education, (pp.175-194). Bingley, United Kingdom: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

The paradigm shift to an inclusion model of education demands strategic planning and programming by teachers to ensure individualized instruction for students with disabilities. Paraeducators or teacher assistants are increasingly being used in the delivery of instruction to students with disabilities; therefore, directing or supervising the work of the paraeducator is an integral part of the planning and programming for inclusive classrooms. Research-based elements and components of paraeducator supervision are shared in the chapter to help teachers and other licensed professionals utilize paraeducators effectively in supporting instructional needs of students with disabilities.

Chopra, R. V., Sandoval-Lucero, E., & French, N.K. (2011). Effective supervision of paraeducators: Multiple benefits and outcomes. National Teacher Education Journal, 4 (2), 15-26.

The number of paraeducators employed in schools has increased dramatically in recent years. The growth of the paraeducator workforce has also resulted in an evolution of their roles in the classroom as well as transition to teaching positions for many of them. It is well documented that paraeducators often do not receive supervision from teachers to be effective in their new roles. This article reports selected findings from two studies that established the connection between effective supervision of paraeducators by teachers and paraeducators’ performance in the classroom as well as their continuing professional and career development.

Conley, S., Gould, J., Levine, H. (2010). Support personnel in schools: characteristics and importance. Journal of Educational Administration, Volume 48(3), 309-326.

Despite the critical role of support personnel in education, the literature about their supervision has been less than informative. In an effort to provide additional guidance to school leaders seeking to improve the supervision of such personnel, the purpose of this paper is to examine and compare three distinct groups of support personnel: school custodians/janitors, school secretaries, and paraprofessionals in special education.

Devlin, P. (2008). Create effective teacher – paraprofessional teams. Intervention in School and Clinic, 44(1), 41-44.

Any given year, general and special education teachers may find themselves managing and supervising one or more paraprofessionals within their classrooms. Paraprofessionals represent a growing and important segment of personnel used to provide support for students with severe learning or behavioral needs in self-contained and inclusive settings. The experience of working as an instructional team may be a positive or negative one, having various implications for students. When teacher and paraprofessional are clearly working as a team, an educational atmosphere exists that is favorable for positive student learning. This article provides teachers with useful strategies and tips when working with paraprofessionals for creating an environment that is beneficial for adults and students.

Douglas, S. N., Chapin, S. E., Nolan, J. F. (2016). Special education teachers’ experiences supporting and supervising paraeducators. Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children, 39(1), 60-74.

In recent years, there has been an increase in paraeducator supports, in large part because students with low incidence disabilities are being included more frequently in general education settings. As a result, special education teachers have been given additional supervisory responsibilities related to directing the work of paraeducators in special and general education settings. Many teachers, however, feel unprepared for this supervisory role. Therefore, to gain a better understanding of current practices in paraeducator supervision, the authors interviewed 13 special education teachers who were nominated by district special education administrators as exemplary supervisors of paraeducators. From the interviews, three themes emerged: creating effective teams, ensuring appropriate training and evaluation, and recommendations for the field. Practices for paraeducators working with students with low incidence disabilities in general education settings are noted in the first two themes. Implications for policy, practice, teacher preparation, and future research are also discussed.

Drecktrah, M.E. (2000, Spring). Preservice teachers’ preparation to work with paraeducators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 12(2), 157-164.

Findings were based on 71% return rate and indicated the majority of respondents to be female (83%), with males comprising 15 percent. In addition to other demographic data, findings reported 67% of respondents expected to supervise paraeducators, and 38% indicated that they are expected to evaluate educators. Fourteen percent of respondents indicated that they had some form of preparation and information on how to collaborate with paraeducators in their teacher education program. Ten percent reported preparation on how to supervise paraeducators, and 7% received preparation on how to evaluate paraeducators. Eighty-eight percent reported no preparation by their schools system to work with paraeducators. Fifty-three percent of the teachers surveyed indicated that they sought out opportunities to educate themselves to work with paraeducators. Ninety percent of respondents believe teacher education institutions need to address working with paraeducators. Seventy-four percent of respondents believe special education teachers need preservice training to educate paraeducators. Suggested training content for paraeducators include (a) behavior management, (b) tutoring, © communication skills, (d) disabilities, (e) observing and recording behavior, (f) computer skills, and (g) record keeping. The authors discuss limitation of this study, which include (a) respondents volunteered and self-reported to survey, (b) respondents perceptions not necessarily reflecting realities, and © absence of verification of findings through sites visits or other methods.

Docherty, R. (2014) A complete circuit: The role of communication between class teachers and support staff and the planning of effective learning opportunities. Educational Psychology in Practice: Theory, Research and Practice in Educational Psychology, 30(2), 181-191.

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was used to explore how support staff make sense of their experiences of assisting children with additional support needs in mainstream classes. Focused and productive communication with the class teacher was perceived as being crucial to effective practice. A conclusion of this study is that absence of communication relating to pedagogy and pupil need between class teachers and support staff prevents effective planning on the part of the teacher and effective support practices on the part of the additional supporting adult.

French N.K. (1996). A case study of a speech-language pathologist’s supervision of assistants in a school setting: Tracy’s story. Journal of Children’s Communication Development, 18(1), 103-110.

This case study describes the experiences of a newly graduated speech-language pathologist working in a small urban school district with a series of speech-language assistants who have various levels of qualifications and personality types. It illustrates how professional supervision skills, preservice paraprofessional training, professional/paraprofessional role distinctions, hiring practices, pay, and working conditions influence and affect the use of paraprofessionals. (Author/DB)

French N. K. (1998). Working together: Resource teachers and paraeducators. Remedial and Special Education, 19, 357-368.

This study examined the relationship between 18 pairs of special-education resource teachers and the paraeducators they supervise. Teachers were divided in their beliefs about the fundamental role of paraeducators, whether as assistants to the teacher or to the student. Teachers also expressed reluctance about their supervisory role, preferring to view paraeducators as peers. (Author/DB)

French N. K. (2000). Topic #3: Taking time to save time: Delegating to paraeducators. Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(3), 79-83.

This third installation of the “Paraeducator Supervision Notebook” focuses on practical ways teachers can make decisions about which classroom tasks to delegate to a paraeducator. It discusses effective time management, the benefits of delegation, reasons school professionals fail to delegate, and steps for delegation to paraeducators. (CR)

French N. K. (2001). Supervising paraprofessionals: A survey of teacher practices. Journal of Special Education 35, 41-53.

This study examined the practices of 321 special education teachers with responsibility for supervising paraprofessionals. Teachers reported little preparation for supervision; most were not involved in hiring but were responsible for evaluation; most provided oral, not written instructions; few held regular meetings with paraprofessionals; and there were many overlapping tasks of teachers and paraprofessionals. (Contains references.) (Author/DB).

French N. K. (2003). Managing paraeducators in your school: How to hire, train, and supervise non-certified staff. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, Inc.

This guide provides tools and strategies for recruiting, managing, and using paraeducators in schools. It offers guidelines for using paraeducators in ways that best contribute to student achievement as well as strategies for identifying best practices, time frames, and people best suited for training paraprofessionals. It includes specific guidelines for working with paraeducators in special education, Title I, ESL training, school libraries and media centers, general and special education classrooms, speech/language pathology, and health-care services. It is designed for district-level administrators, school administrators, and teachers. The chapters are titled as follows: (1) “Employing Support Personnel in Schools”; (2) “Potential Problems with Paraeducators/Finding Solutions”; (3) “The Shifting Roles of School Professionals”; (4) “Recruiting and Hiring Paraprofessionals”; (5) “Starting Off on the Right Foot”; (6) “Taking Time to Save Time: Delegating to Paraeducators”; (7) “Planning for Paraeducators”; (8) “Paraeducator Training”; (9) “Monitoring and Evaluating Paraeducator Performance”; (10) “Managing the Workplace.” Each chapter contains a summary. The guide also contains many user-friendly information recaps; lists of questions; sample forms; sample plans; worksheets for a variety of tasks; and self-assessment and support checklists for a variety of tasks. (Contains a subject index and 73 references.) (WFA)

French, N. K. & Chopra, R. V. (2006). Teachers as Executives. Theory into Practice, 45(3), 230-238.

The roles and responsibilities of special educator shave shifted as schools move to provide inclusive services for students with disabilities. The inclusive special educator is responsible for coordinating a complex system of adults and students—often including paraeducators, related service specialists, classroom teachers, and peer assistants. This contemporary role is analogous to that of an executive in business settings and requires comparable leadership, collaboration, and communication skills. Teachers who demonstrate skills in 5 key functioning areas may see more successful inclusion of their students. Of importance, teachers who are adjusting to the shift in role require certain administrative supports as they acquire this new identity of executive.

French N. K., & Pickett, A.L. (1997). Paraprofessionals in special education: Issues for teacher educators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 20(1), 61-73.

Identifies and discusses issues associated with the employment of paraprofessionals in special education programs likely to be of the greatest importance and interest to teacher educators. These include teacher preparation to supervise, training of paraprofessionals, role overlap, paraprofessionals as community links, and paraprofessionals as potential professionals. (CR)

Freschi D.F. (1999). Guidelines for working with one-to-one aides. Teaching Exceptional Children, 31(4), 42-47.

Explores what educators can do to facilitate effective collaboration with aides who are providing one-to-one support for mainstreamed children with such disabilities as autism and pervasive developmental disability. Emphasis is on the importance of effective planning, careful identification of roles and skill areas, and supervision. (DB)

Gerlach K. (2001). Let’s team up: A checklist for paraeducators, teachers, and principals. Washington, DC: National Education Association of the United States.

This checklist is designed to help paraeducators, teachers, and principals understand their roles and responsibilities as they relate to each other. It offers tips for teachers on working effectively with paraeducators, practical suggestions for paraeducators on clarifying their jobs and relationships with students and school staff, and advice for principals on the administrative supervision of paraeducators. Five sections focus on: “Introduction” (e.g., how the checklist can be beneficial and who should use it); “The Paraeducator’s Role” (e.g., major responsibilities, learning school policies and procedures, working with teachers and supervisors, and performing assigned tasks); “The Teacher’s Role” (e.g., major responsibilities, beginning the school year, managing paraeducators, assigning tasks, and giving feedback); “The Principal’s Role” (e.g., major responsibilities, hiring paraeducators, creating a professional climate, and supporting the teacher-paraeducator team); “A Winning Team” (reasons to team up, 10 characteristics of an effective team, breaking in a new team member, and promoting and assessing the team); and “Resources” (books, articles, videos, Web sites, and organizations). (SM)

Gerschel, L. (2005). The special educational needs coordinator’s role in managing teaching assistants: The Greenwich experience. Support for Learning: British Journal of Learning Support, 20(2), 69-76.

In this article Liz Gerschel explores some aspects of the role of the special educational needs coordinator (SENCO) in the management of teaching assistants (TAs) in mainstream schools, drawing on the experience of professionals working in the London Borough of Greenwich. The SENCO’s responsibilities for managing TAs are discussed and issues of recruitment, appointment, job descriptions, deployment, the roles and responsibilities of TAs and their managers, collaboration between TAs and teachers, TA induction and training, and monitoring the work of TAs are explored.

Ghere G., & York-Barr, J. (2003). Employing, developing, and directing special education paraprofessionals in inclusive education programs: Findings from a multi-site case study. Minneapolis, MN: Institute on Community Integration (UCEDD) & Department of Educational Policy and Administration, University of Minnesota.

It was not until the 1997 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) that federal special education legislation referred to “paraprofessionals.” This was despite the paraprofessional workforce expanding from 10,000 in 1965 to over 500,000 full-time equivalent employees by 1996 (Pickett, 1986, 1996). IDEA focused national attention on paraprofessionals who support students with disabilities in public schools. Concurrently, the literature on paraprofessional roles and responsibilities, direction, and development has grown steadily. Although more research is needed in all of these areas, little continues to be known about paraprofessional employment processes (Giangreco, Edelman, Broer, & Doyle, 2001). Policies and practices at each level of the school district (i.e., team, school, district) affect paraprofessional employment, direction, and development. There is a significant gap in our knowledge about how districts are looking at these issues across the levels of district and the degree of communication and coordination that exists between the levels of a district. These issues are particularly important for inclusive special education programs because the programs tend to be highly decentralized and paraprofessionals often do not work in close proximity to the special education teachers most of the school day. The purpose of this study was to describe and understand the systems that districts use to employ, develop, and direct their special education paraprofessionals to work effectively in inclusive special education programs. A multi-site case study of three school districts was conducted. District level special education personnel in each district identified one elementary special education teacher and one secondary special education teacher whom they believed were effectively including students with disabilities in general education classes and who directed the work of at least two paraprofessionals. Other key informants (e.g., special education directors, special education supervisors, principals, paraprofessionals) were drawn from the site and district levels in the three school districts. A total of 53 individuals from across the three districts participated in the study. Data collection included semi-structured interviews and structured group interviews. The findings clustered around key areas: The work of paraprofessionals in inclusive education programs. The work of special educators in supporting paraprofessionals. Developing the knowledge and skills of paraprofessionals.

Giangreco M. F. (2003). Working with paraprofessionals. Educational Leadership, 61(2), 50-53.

Giangreco M.F., Broer, S.M., & Edelman, S.W. (2002). Schoolwide planning to improve paraeducator supports: A pilot study. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 21(1), 3-15.

This pilot study chronicled the use of a process called, A Guide to School wide Planning for Paraeducator Supports, by teams in four schools, grades K-12. Data reflect the utilization and outcomes of the process along with the perspectives of 27 study participants. Findings indicated that the process assisted all four schools to self-assess their paraeducator practices, identify priorities in need of improvement, develop action plans, and implement them. Study participants reported that the process did what it purported to do and rated it highly on a series of consumer-oriented variables (e.g., ease of use). Implications for schools and future use are discussed for improving paraeducator supports.

Guay D.M. (2003). Paraeducators in art classrooms: issues of culture, leadership, and special needs. Studies in Art Education, 45(1), 20-39.

Using Blumer’s (1969) symbolic interaction as a theory base, this research is a multi-site analysis that examines instructional and managerial interaction in segregated, inclusive, and integrated classrooms of art teachers who teach students with disabilities. It describes approaches to art instruction for students with disabilities in the classes of 12 art teachers, each of whom relied on the services of a paraeducator. It lends understanding of how disability is defined and perpetuated by classroom interaction. Paraeducators, well meaning but generally untrained, tended to diminish learning, marginalize, and disempower students. I argue for the need to address classroom leadership and supervisory skills in preservice and inservice teacher education programs and for the learning of best practices to provide opportunities for students with even the most severe disabilities to communicate through visual means their being, their chosen ideas, and their understandings.

Haegele J.A. & Kozub, F.M. (2010). A continuum of paraeducator support for utilization in adapted physical education. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus, 6(5), 1-11.

_This article describes three different ways of using paraeducators during adapted physical education. (1.) Having paraeducators read a portion of the lesson plan that describes the desired support towards lesson objectives. Paraeducators then assist all students when needed. (2.) Assigning specific modifications for paraeducators through the IEP process. These modifications may be designed for a single child and listed in the lesson plan. The paraeducator then provides specific support for a particular child. (3.) Using video modeling to create media clips for paraeducators to view prior to assisting children during the lesson. The media clips include modeling of key lesson concepts aimed at helping paraeducators understand physical education activities that a child is expected to accomplish during the lesson. The physical educator is then free to attend to other learners with different needs during portions of the lesson. Recommendations for using video technology are provided.

Hauerwas, L. B., & Goessling, D. P. (2008). Who are the interventionists? Guidelines for paraeducators in RTI. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus, 4(3) Article 4. Retrieved August 30, 2008 from

As a Response to Intervention approach begins to be utilized in our schools, there is growing confusion regarding the role of teacher assistants/paraeducators in this problem solving approach. In this article, the authors share survey and interview data from their experiences working with Rhode Island teacher assistants – both in leading teacher assistant training on RTI and in researching implementation of RTI in RI elementary schools. Both challenges and guidelines for the use of teacher assistants in a RTI model are presented. Recommendations for the effective use of teacher assistants in general education and special education classrooms include: teacher assistants as members of school-wide intervention teams; a greater focus on the use of teacher assistants during the assessment process; better professional development; and increased common planning time for enhanced communication about student learning.

Irwin D.W. Ingram, P., Huffman, J. (2018). Exploring paraprofessional and classroom factors affecting teacher supervision. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 73(2018), 106-114.

Background: Paraprofessionals serve a primary role in supporting students with disabilities in the classroom, which necessitates teachers’ supervision as a means to improve their practice. Yet, little is known regarding what factors affect teacher supervision. Aims: We sought to identify how paraprofessional competence and classroom type affected the levels of teacher direction. Methods and procedures: We administered an adapted version of the Paraprofessional Needs, Knowledge & Tasks Survey and the Survey for Teachers Supervising Paraprofessionals to teachers supervising paraprofessionals in elementary schools. Structural Equation Modeling was used to examine the link between paraprofessional competence and classroom factors affecting the level of teacher supervision. Outcomes and results: Our results indicated that when teachers perceived paraprofessionals as being more skilled, they provided more supervision, and when more supervision was provided the less they thought paraprofessionals should be doing their assigned tasks. Additionally, paraprofessionals working in classrooms with more students with mild disabilities received less supervision than paraprofessionals working in classrooms with more students with moderate-to-severe disabilities. Those paraprofessionals in classrooms serving mostly children with mild disabilities were also perceived as having lower levels of skill competence than those serving in classrooms with students with more moderate-to-severe disabilities. Conclusion and implications: By understanding the factors that affect teacher supervision, policy and professional development opportunities can be refined/developed to better support both supervising teachers and paraprofessionals and, in turn, improve the outcomes of children with disabilities.

Jerwood L. (1999). Using special needs assistants effectively. British Journal of Special Education, 26(3), 127-129.

After interviews with seven English special needs assistants found that they lacked clear ideas about expectations and reported poor classroom communication, the assistants were attached to one subject area rather than to specific pupils. Results found the assistants all felt happier in their work and accepted as members of the team. (Author/CR)

Killoran J., Templeman, T. P., Peters, J., & Udell, T. (2001) Identifying paraprofessional competencies for early intervention and early childhood special education. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34(1), 68-73.

This article identifies competencies needed by paraprofessionals working in early childhood special education including ways to document various mastery levels. It describes use of the competencies in Oregon’s early childhood special education personnel development program. It explains the process used to identify needed competencies and also reports on a survey of 64 paraprofessionals of their perceived training needs. (Contains references.) (DB)

Ledford J., Zimmerman, K., et al. (2017). Coaching paraprofessionals to promote engagement and social interactions during small group activities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 26(4), 410-432.

Paraprofessionals need adequate training and supports to assist young children with autism spectrum disorders to engage in appropriate social interactions during small group activities with their peers. In this study, we used in situational coaching and brief post-session feedback to improve the use of environmental arrangement, prompting, and praise by three paraprofessionals working in inclusive classrooms. Results suggested the brief coaching intervention was effective for improving target behaviors. In addition, generalized use of behaviors and child outcomes were positive. Situational feedback is a promising practice for improving use of evidence-based practices by non-certified personnel in early childhood settings.

Lewis, S., & McKenzie, A. R. (2010). The competencies, roles, supervision, and training needs of paraeducators working with students with visual impairments in local and residential schools. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 104 (8), 464–477.

Paraeducators who were employed by local school districts and residential schools for students with visual impairments were surveyed to determine if there are differences in their roles, training needs, and perceptions of supervisors’ competencies. The paraeducators in local schools reported more training, the provision of less direct service, and greater supervision by more competent teachers of students with visual impairments than did their residential school counterparts.

Lewis, S., & McKenzie, A. R. (2009). Knowledge and Skills for Teachers of Students with Visual Impairments Supervising the Work of Paraeducators. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 103(8), 481-494.

Teachers of students with visual impairments and paraeducators who work with students with visual impairments were surveyed to determine if previous research related to the competencies needed by teachers who supervise paraeducators applied to this subset of special educators. Both groups confirmed the importance of the competencies, but identified differences in their demonstration by teachers of students with visual impairments. (Contains 2 tables and 2 figures.)

Maggin, D.M., Wehby, J.H., Moore-Partin, T.C., Robertson, R, Oliver, R.M. (2009). Supervising paraeducators in classrooms for children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Beyond Behavior, 18(3), 2-9.

The academic and behavioral difficulties exhibited by students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) provide educators with unique challenges. Students with EBD tend to display aggression, noncompliance, and other conduct problems at higher rates and with more stability than typically developing peers (Kauffman, 2005 Dazdin, 1987). For example, children with EBD have been observed to emit more negative statements toward teachers and to display more inappropriate behaviors than typically developing peers. These data suggest that children with EBD can be distinguished from the general population for their behavioral excesses that often divert teacher energies away from instruction.

Mason, R. A., Schnitz, A. G., Gerow, S., Zhe, G. A., Wills, H. P. (2018). Effects of teacher-implemented coaching to increase the accuracy of data collected by paraeducators. Journal of Behavioral Education, 28, 204-226.

The purpose of the present study was to assess the impact of coaching with performance feedback from teachers on accuracy of paraeducators’ momentary time sampling (MTS) data of students’ on-task behavior. Two lead teachers and three paraeducators participated in the study. The relation between coaching and accuracy of the data collection was evaluated using a multiple-baseline across paraeducators design. Baseline data from this study suggest that some paraeducators need explicit instruction in how to collect data with fdelity. Once coaching with performance feedback from teachers was implemented, there was an immediate increase in accuracy of data collection by paraeducators, as measured by inter-rater agreement, indicating a functional relationship between the independent and dependent variables. These results highlight that teacher-led coaching is feasible and efective for increasing paraeducators’ MTS data collection accuracy and provides preliminary evidence that the accuracy maintained 1–2 months following cessation of formal coaching sessions. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Mason R., Schnitz, A., Willis, H., Rosenbloom, R., Kamps, D. & Bast, D. (2017). Impact of a teacher-as-coach model: improving paraprofessionals fidelity of implementation of discrete trial training for students with moderate-to-severe developmental disabilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47, 1696-1707.

Ensuring educational progress for students with moderate-to-severe developmental disabilities requires exposure to well executed evidence-based practices. This necessitates that the special education workforce, including paraprofessionals, be well-trained. Yet evidence regarding effective training mechanisms for paraprofessionals is limited. A multiple baseline design across five teachers was used to evaluate the impact of online instructional modules and a Practice-Based Coaching (PBC) model with teacheras-coach on their paraprofessionals’ fidelity of discrete trial training (DTT). Implementation of the instructional modules yielded little to no change in paraprofessionals’ DTT fidelity, however, a clear functional relation between PBC and improvement in paraprofessionals’ fidelity of implementation of DTT was demonstrated. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

McKenzie, A. R. & Lewis, S. (2008). The role and training of paraprofessionals who work with students who are visually impaired. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 102, 459-471.

This survey of teachers of students with visual impairments and paraprofessionals who work with students with visual impairments found that more than 35% of the paraprofessionals were providing direct instruction in skills in the expanded core curriculum. Thus, the roles of these two groups need to be clarified.

Miller A., Liebermen, L., Lane, K. & Owens, R. (2019). Preparing your paraeducator for success. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 90(5), 47-51.

This article provides a handout that promotes communication between general physical education teachers and the paraeducators that they work with. Despite the continually increasing number of paraprofessionals employed in schools in the United States, their roles remain unclearly defined, specifically within the physical education setting. Paraeducators are an integral part of the educational team (Causton-Theoharis, 2009) and are crucial to helping create inclusive physical education classes for all students (Lieberman, 2007). In many cases the paraeducators do not know what to do in physical education, and the physical education teacher does not know how to prepare them for their classes (Bryan, McCubbin, & van der Mars, 2013; Davis, Kotecki, Harvey, & Oliver, 2007). Resources specifically created to help paraeducators and general physical educators collaborate and more clearly define the role of the paraeducator to ensure student success are scarce. This article provides a handout that promotes communication between general physical education teachers and the paraeducators that they work with.

Mistry, M., Burton, N., & Brundrett, M. (2004). Managing LSAs: An evaluation of the use of learning support assistants in an urban primary school. School Leadership & management, 24(2), 125-137.

The multi-tasking of classroom or learning support assistants (LSAs) is a well-established phenomenon in English primary schools. As their roles have become better defined and specifically funded an element of role specialism has become essential. However, the management and direction of LSAs does not always appear to be clearly or effectively structured. Evidence collected from a small urban English lower school (4-9 years old) shows that job descriptions can be inaccurate and management structures ambiguous. Whilst senior management is able to visualize the ideal, lack of effective communication results in inefficient and arbitrary management of LSAs by teaching staff. The lack of a clear line-management structure and ownership issues concerning the tasks performed are identified as the key barriers to improving the situation.

Morgan J., & Ashbaker, B.Y. (2001). A teacher’s guide to working with paraeducators and other classroom aides. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

This book provides advice and activities to help forge productive working relationships between teachers and paraeducators. Chapter 1, “Leading the Classroom Instructional Team,” examines teacher responsibilities as leaders of classroom instructional teams, discussing how their new roles as paraeducator supervisors can mesh with more traditional roles. Chapter 2, “Assigning Roles and Responsibilities,” examines the process of identifying roles and responsibilities for paraeducators. Chapter 3, “Improving Communications,” considers different approaches and experiences adults bring to classrooms and how they influence effective communication. Chapter 4, “Monitoring the Quality of Your Paraeducator’s Work”; chapter 5, “Providing On-the-Job Training”; and chapter 6, “Creating a Feedback Loop,” describe the process of assessing paraeducator skills and abilities, providing training, and establishing procedures for giving and receiving feedback. Chapter 7, “The Logistics”; chapter 8, “Troubleshooting”; and chapter 9, “Practicing What You’ve Learned,” examine practical concerns. The first seven chapters provide suggestions for translating chapter subject matter into specific classroom situations, offering fill-in-the-blank forms that can serve as the basis of self-improvement plans and help teachers set personal goals related to supervisory roles. A list of organizations that provide useful information for paraeducators and teachers is included. (SM)

Nevin, A., Villa, R. A., & Thousand, J. S. (2009). A guide to co-teaching with paraeducators: Practical tips for K-12 educators. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Osborne C. & Burton, S. (2014). Emotional Literacy Support Assistants’ views on supervision provided by educational psychologists: What EPs can learn from group supervision. Educational Psychology in Practice: Theory, Research and Practice in Educational Psychology, 30(2), 139-155,

The Educational Psychology Service in this study has responsibility for providing group supervision to Emotional Literacy Support Assistants (ELSAs) working in schools. To date, little research has examined this type of inter-professional supervision arrangement. The current study used a questionnaire to examine ELSAs’ views on the supervision provided to them. Key areas of interest were the extent to which supervision was perceived to be meeting ELSAs’ needs, their relationship with their supervisor and other group members, the advantages and disadvantages of receiving supervision as a group, and the impact of supervision on practice. Questionnaires were returned by 270 ELSAs. The responses indicated that the majority felt that their supervision needs were being met and that they had a good relationship with their supervisor and other group members. Supervision was generally considered to be a useful mechanism for discussing cases, sharing ideas and problem-solving. Consequently, the majority felt better able to support pupils as a result of this support. The results are discussed in light of the dual role that educational psychologists (EPs) who provide this type of supervision have, and the implications of this for educational psychology practice.

Pickett A. L. (1999). Strengthening and supporting teacher/provider-paraeducator teams: Guidelines for paraeducator roles, supervision, and preparation. New York, New York: City University of New York, National Resource Center for Paraprofessionals in Education and Related Services.

This technical assistance manual contains guidelines for paraeducator roles, supervision, and skill and knowledge competency standards on which policymakers and implementers can build to improve the effectiveness of teacher/provider-paraeducator teams. The guidelines and standards were developed by a project of national significance funded by the Office of Special Education Programs of the U.S. Department of Education. Specific sections address: (1) guiding principles of paraeducator employment roles, preparation, and supervision; (2) the need for paraeducator utilization and preparation guidelines; (3) factors creating a critical need for the development and implementation of standards for paraeducator roles, responsibilities, skill and knowledge competencies, and supervision; (4) distinctions in teacher/provider and paraeducator team roles; (5) scope of teacher/provider responsibilities for paraeducator supervision; (6) standards for teacher/provider supervisory competencies; (7) paraeducator scope of responsibilities and skill standards; (8) scope of responsibilities for paraeducators in program implementation teams; (9) standards for paraeducator knowledge and skill competencies; (10) job descriptions for paraeducators; (11) assessing teacher/provider-paraeducator team performance; (12) teacher performance indicators; (13) paraeducator performance indicators; (14) developing the policies and infrastructures for strengthening teacher/provider-paraeducator teams; (15) credentialing procedures for paraeducators; and (16) the role of higher education in paraeducator preparation. (Contains 38 references.) (CR)

Pickett A.L., & Gerlach, K. (1997). Supervising paraeducators in school settings: A team approach. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

The first chapter provides a historical review of the evolving role of paraeducators and some of the central issues facing education today. Chapter two discusses team roles in instructional settings; chapter three addresses team roles in therapy services; chapter four covers the management of paraeducators; chapter five describes team building strategies; chapter six examines professional and ethical issues in teams; and chapter seven discusses paraeducator administrative issues. The authors also discuss future issues in chapter eight and the contribution of paraeducators to improving educational outcomes for students. Chapters are organized by learning objectives and discussion questions. Exercises, case studies, and worksheets are provided to illustrate main ideas.

Railsback J., Reed, B., & Schmidt, K. (2002). Working together for successful paraeducator services: A guide for paraeducators, teachers, and principals. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Portland, OR.

This booklet provides an overview of the current issues surrounding paraeducator employment and synthesizes recommendations of various national, state, and local paraeducator task force groups. Based on these recommendations, the booklet outlines suggestions for paraeducators, teachers, and principals to increase paraeducator effectiveness. After an introduction, the booklet focuses on: “In Context: What are the Current Issues Involving Paraeducators?” (concerns about preparation training, and roles and about recent legislation); “How are Researchers, Practitioners, and Policymakers Responding to These Concerns and Policies?”; “What are the Guidelines for Paraeducator Roles and Responsibilities?” (roles for teachers, principals, and paraeducators); “Northwest Sampler” (Houghtaling Elementary School, Ketchikan, Alaska; Oakwood Elementary School, Preston, Idaho; Hardin Public Schools, Hardin, Montana; and Cherrydale School, Steilacoom, Washington); and “Conclusion” (paraeducators can offer tremendous benefits for children, providing instructional reinforcement that enhances every student’s opportunity to learn, meet standards, and achieve academic success). An appendix presents existing or proposed state paraeducator certification policies. Relevant resources are listed. (Contains 28 references.) (SM)

Riggs C. G. (May/June 2004). To teachers: What paraeducators want you to know. Teaching Exceptional Children, 36(5), 8-12.

This article shares the following ten points:

• Know the paraeducator’s name, background, and interests.
• Be familiar with district policies for paraeducators.
• View the teacher and paraeducator as a team.
• Share your classroom expectations with paraeducators.
• Define specific roles and responsibilities for paraeducators and teachers.
• Direct and supervise paraeducators — it is the teacher’s responsibility.
• Communicate with paraeducators.
• Recognize that paraeducators have experience and knowledge to share.
• As the teacher, take ownership of all students.
• Show respect for paraeducators.

Riggs C. G. (2002). Providing administrative support for classroom paraeducators: What’s a building administrator to do? Rural Special Education Quarterly 21 (3), 10-14.

This article addresses the changing role administrators have over the hiring and supervision of paraeducators. Historically paraeducators worked primarily under the supervision of special educators. With the dramatic increase in the use of paraeducators in general education classrooms over the past decade, administrators have been called upon to interact more directly with paraeducators.

Riggs discusses the three “R’s” that can help define administrative support for paraeducators. They are:

• Responsibilities — clear definition of their roles and responsibilities within the school and classroom, and between the teacher and the paraeducator.
• Relationships — good communication between paraeducators, teachers and administrators is essential to helping a paraeducator feel valued and part of a team.
• Respect — administrators should help emphasize to the school staff the importance of paraeducators by making sure that staff members treat them as part of the educational team.

Riggs also provides a list titled “Ten Tips for Providing Administrative Support”.

Rutherford, G. (2008). “Yeah, he’s just like you.” The role of teacher aides in supporting children’s understandings of and relationships with one another. New Zealand Journal of Disability Studies, 13, 81-100.

Salzberg C.L., & Morgan, J. (1995). Preparing teachers to work with paraeducators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 18, 49-55.

The authors cite five reasons for increased interest in paraprofessionals. They note that the growing use of paraeducators raises different problems for teachers. They also review commonalities in training programs / recommendations

Scheeler, M. C., Morano, S., & Lee, D. L. (2016). Effects of immediate feedback using bug-in-ear with paraeducators working with students with autism. Teacher Education and Special Education, 1-15. DOI: 10.1177/0888406416666645

In today’s autistic-support classrooms, paraeducators are tasked with working with our neediest students yet report that they are unprepared for their roles despite attempts at training. The special education teachers who are tasked with coaching and supervising several paraeducators at a time in their classrooms report that they too are unprepared to work with paraeducators in this capacity. In this study, the authors examine the effects of the special education teacher providing immediate feedback via bug-in-ear to the paraeducator on increasing a specific teaching behavior, providing contingent specific praise. Two special education teachers and four paraeducators working in two separate autistic-support classrooms participated in the multiplebaseline across participants study. When immediate feedback from the teacher was introduced in the intervention condition, percentage of occurrences of contingent specific praise increased for all paraeducators and continued at high levels even when the intervention was faded. Rate of occurrences also increased. In addition, the special education teachers and paraeducators all rated the intervention as a beneficial technique they liked using and found motivating and helpful. Implications for classroom use are discussed.

Stacey, K., Harvey, S., & Richrads, H. (2013). Teachers working with ESOL paraprofessionals in a secondary context: Examining supervision. Teaching and Teacher Education, 36, 55-67.

Internationally paraprofessionals are increasingly employed as one option of providing support for English language learners (ELLs) in schools. Consequently more teachers are working with paraprofessionals and becoming responsible for their supervision. This article examines the supervision of eight paraprofessionals working in secondary schools in New Zealand. To maximise learning benefits for ELLs, we argue that robust systems of supervision are required for ESOL paraprofessionals. While this study is located in New Zealand we believe it illuminates issues that are of international interest in education systems that are struggling to stay abreast of and adequately cater for ethnic and linguistic diversity.

Steckelberg A.L. Vasa, S.F., Kemp, S.E. (2007). A web-based training model for preparing teachers to supervise paraeducators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 30(1), 52-55.

Paraeducators have been widely used to expand services provided in special education programs (Giangreco, Broer, & Edelman, 2002; Giangreco, Edelman, Luiselli, & MacFarland,1997). The effectiveness of paraprofessionals depends heavily on their preparation and supervision (Gerber, Finn, Achilles, & BoydZaharias, 2001). Training and supervision are carried out primarily by teachers, yet traditionally teacher education programs have not adequately prepared teachers for this responsibility (Drecktrah,2000; May & Marozas, 1986; Wallace,Shin, Bartholomay, & Stahl, 2001). In 1999, the University of Nebraska-Lincoln was funded by a Project of National Significance from the Office of Special Education Programs at the U.S. Department of Education to develop and field test a model for training teachers to effectively supervise paraeducators. The project created competency-based, accessible, and systematic training materials that could be delivered via the Web (http://para.unl.edu). The training materials were designed to be used either as a stand-alone self-study package or as an adjunct to additional face-to-face instruction in a traditional course.

Stewart, E.M. (2018). Reducing ambiguity: Tools to define and communicate paraprofessional roles and responsibilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, OnlineFirst, Last updated July 16, 2018 Collaboration Forum.

One-on-one and program-based special education paraprofessionals are often used to support students with disabilities across school settings. While paraprofessionals may have the best of intentions, their proximity and the support they provide may prevent students with disabilities from fully accessing educational and social opportunities. To prevent unintentional yet negative student outcomes, it is necessary to define and communicate job responsibilities to paraprofessionals before they begin working with students with disabilities. This article outlines several flexible tools and strategies that teachers and administrators can use to efficiently and effectively communicate this information. The article includes (a) a description of how teachers and administrators can define and deliver job-related information to paraprofessionals, (b) reproducible templates for developing a written or digital job responsibilities notebook for paraprofessionals, and (c) recommendations for using these tools effectively.

Stockwell N. (2014). When an aide really becomes an aid: Providing professional development for special education paraprofesionals. Teaching Exceptional Children, 46(1), 197-205.

The article examines how to provide professional development opportunities for paraprofessionals working in special education, using the experiences of a early childhood education teacher working with an aide as an example. Particular attention is given to the value of basic communication skills, mentoring, and the use of direct instruction training models (DITM).

Styer, C., Fitagerald, S. (2015). Effective strategies for working with paraeducators, 2nd edition, edited by C. Styer and S. Fitzgerald. Kirkland, WA: Styer Fitzgerald Publishing; 2015. ISBN 978-0-9969130-2-7.

Tew, L., & Lupart, J.* (2008). Student with disabilities’ perspectives of the role and impact of paraprofessionals in inclusive education settings. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 5(1), 39-46.

Over the past few decades, the role and presence of the paraprofessional, that is the educational assistant, within the classroom has evolved from providing teacher and student support to involving greater decision-making concerning instructional content and practice. The extent to which this shift is impacting students with a variety of mild to severe developmental disabilities is a crucial question that to date remains under-researched and unanswered. The authors studied this issue by probing students’ perceptions concerning the role of their paraprofessionals and their impact on the student’s inclusive education experience. The authors explored the following perspective areas noted by the students: student personal control, impact on peer relations, dependency on adults, instructional relationship of teachers compared to paraprofessionals, and inclusion of peers. In general, the authors found that students felt that their paraprofessionals were viewed favorably by peers, but that promotion of socialization and peer networking may have been compromised as they reported that they spent a majority of the school day interacting with the paraprofessional as opposed to other students. Other factors bear consideration as well, and the authors conclude that the educational system continues to be in need of revamping, and that the efficacy of the system needs to be demonstrated by empirical evidence.

Tobin, R. (2006). Five ways to facilitate the teacher assistant’s work in the classroom. TEACHING Exceptional Children Plus, 2(6), Article 4.

A teacher and a teacher assistant, working together in an inclusive grade-six classroom, provided an invaluable insider perspective on the kind of context that leads to effective support for all students. Findings from this case study revealed five ways in which the teacher could facilitate the work of the teacher assistant, by: 1) focusing on relationship building (nudging instead of nagging); 2) monitoring the amount of teacher talk to afford mini-lessons; 3) applying the basics of differentiation and universal design; 4) negotiating classroom management roles and sharing responsibilities for students; and 5) using an action-oriented format to shape the communication agenda.

Trautman, M. L. (2004). Preparing and managing paraprofessionals. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39(3), 131-138.

More than 525,000 people serve as educational paraprofessionals in the United States (Likins, 2003). Due to the large number of paraprofessionals, their recruitment, hiring, training, and supervision has received increased emphasis. This article summarizes current legislation regarding the roles and responsibilities of paraeducators, and methods and ideas are suggested for preparing and managing paraeducators. (Contains 2 illustrations and 5 figures.)

Wallace T., Shin, J., Bartholomay, T., Stahl, B. (2001). Knowledge and skills for teachers supervising the work of paraprofessionals. Exceptional Children, 67, 520-533.

This study identified competencies needed by teachers to supervise or direct the work of paraprofessionals in educational settings. Participants included 92 administrators, 266 teachers, and 211 paraprofessionals. Respondents completed a survey of prospective competencies for teachers supervising the work of paraprofessionals. In addition, respondents were asked about the extent to which they observed teachers’ demonstration of these competencies in their school environments. Results of the study suggest that participants considered the competencies very important, but that the competencies were not observed as frequently as their perceived importance. For teachers who reported they did not demonstrate competencies, it was often due to a lack of preservice preparation or professional staff development opportunities. Implications for practice are discussed.

Yates, P. A., Chopra, R. V., Sobeck, E. E., Douglas, S. N., Morano, S., Walker, V. L., Schultze, R. (2020). Working with paraeducators: Tools and strategies for planning, performance feedback, and evaluation. Intervention in School and Clinic, 56(1), 43-50.

With continued emphasis on inclusive practices, paraeducators are increasingly relied upon as an integral part of instructional service delivery for students with disabilities. However, research consistently reveals that the effective use of paraeducators depends largely on teacher leadership and supervision. Currently, few teacher preparation programs offer meaningful coursework pertaining to managing paraeducators, leaving teachers unprepared for their supervisory role upon entering the field. Incorporating paraeducators into the instructional planning and delivery process requires that several considerations be made. This column shares several recommendations with teachers for designing, implementing, and evaluating the effectiveness of lesson plans that incorporate paraeducators in the inclusive setting. A lesson plan template is provided and discussed, and guidance is provided for teaching paraeducators evidence-based practices (EBPs) using behavioral skills training and supporting them in using EBPs during instruction.

Yates, P., Chopra, R. V., Douglas, S., Walker, V., Schulze, R., Sobeck, E., Morano, S. (2019). Preparing teachers for effective paraeducator supervision. Council for Exceptional Children, Division of Teacher Education (Issue 3).

Paraeducators are an integral part of the instructional process and support services for students with disabilities. Referred to synonymously as paraprofessionals, teacher assistants, instructional assistants, educational assistants, special needs assistants, and personal learning assistants, paraeducators shoulder increased responsibilities for supporting students with disabilities in today’s classroom (Brown & Stanton-Chapman, 2014). Federal law mandates that paraeducators receive appropriate training and supervision by a certified education professional; however, researchers consistently confirm that paraeducators lack supervision and training (Brock & Carter, 2016; Douglas, Chapin, & Nolan, 2016; Giangreco, 2013). Too often, unsupervised paraeducators become the primary mechanism for providing instruction to students with disabilities, resulting in teachers relinquishing their teaching role. Excessive and inappropriate over reliance on paraeducators may have detrimental effects on the quality of educational and related services for PK–12 students with disabilities (Chopra & Giangreco, 2019). Though the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) Special Education Standards for Professional Practice (CEC, 2015) outline the critical knowledge and skill sets for special education professionals to use when directing the work of paraeducators, many report inadequate preparation for their supervisory role (Brock & Carter, 2016; Giangreco, Suter, & Doyle, 2010). Taken together, these critical issues thwart the effectiveness of paraeducators in schools. This brief offers recommendations and guidelines for better preparation of teachers for their supervisory roles with paraeducators.

Zobell, E., Hwang, J. (2020). An examination of the current status of paraprofessionals through their Lens: role, training, and supervision. Journal of Special Education Apprenticeship, 9(1), 2-20.

Revisions of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1997 allowed for districts to hire teachers’ aides to assist in the educational process. These teachers’ aides, known as paraprofessionals or paraeducators, have increased in number since 1997 and now play an important role in helping students with disabilities. The purpose of the current study is to diagnose the current situation of paraprofessionals in special education within the four key aspects of appropriate role, inappropriate role, training, and supervision. A total of 47 paraprofessionals participated in the survey. Using the paraprofessionals’ perspectives on what the challenges and demanding areas were, we aim to establish a basis for providing teachers and school administrators guidelines to better support paraprofessionals who work with students with disabilities. Future research and limitations are discussed.

Andzik N. R., Cannella-Malone, H. I. (2019). Practitioner implementation of communication intervention with students with complex communication needs. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 124(5), 395-410.

This study evaluated the effects of a pyramidal training approach that used an expert trainer who taught teachers how to train their paraeducators. Three special education teachers were taught to train four paraeducators to provide students with intellectual and developmental disabilities opportunities to initiate (OTI). A multiple baseline design across participants was used to evaluate the rate and fidelity that paraeducators provided OTI and least to most prompting strategies with students. Rates increased from 0 to an average of .58 per minute. Fidelity of implementation increased from 0% to an average of 94.5%. Maintenance data were recorded for three paraeducators. Schools should consider using this cost- and time-effective training model with staff.

Andzik N. R. & Schaefer, J. M. (2019). Pre‐service teacher‐delivered behavioral skills training: a pyramidal training approach. Behavioral Interventions, 35(1), 99-113.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of using a university‐based pyramidal approach (i.e., train the trainer) to teach four pre‐service teachers to train another person. These pre‐service teachers were taught to use behavioral skills training (BST) techniques to train other professionals to use an evidence‐based practice. Transfer to a generalization trainee was probed and three participants maintenance of BST fidelity was probed one year later, after the participants had begun teaching. Results indicate that the participants quickly acquired and maintained a high degree of fidelity with BST. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Back M. (2020). “It is a village: translanguaging pedagogies and collective responsibility in a rural school district. Tesol Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.562

Although rural U.S. school districts are experiencing increases in emergent multilingual learners (EMLLs), many lack the resources for employing TESOL‐specialized staff or training mainstream teachers in how to meet these students’ needs (Freeman Field, n.d.). Indeed, professional development (PD) in TESOL is a continued, persistent necessity for all teachers working with linguistically and culturally diverse students (Pettit, 2011). This article examines the role of sustained PD in shaping the beliefs and practices regarding EMLLs of educators in a rural school district. Three focal participants engaged in PD sessions on translanguaging pedagogies. Data from interviews, instructional observations, and focus groups showed articulation of a translanguaging stance. Participants demonstrated pedagogical flexibility and a collective sense of responsibility (indexed by the phrase “it is a village”) as well as other beliefs and practices characteristic of translanguaging stance, design, and shifts (García, Ibarra Johnson, & Seltzer, 2017). This study addresses a gap in TESOL research regarding how PD can shape educators’ attitudes toward and practices with EMLLs. Furthermore, by incorporating often‐overlooked members of elementary school ecologies, such as literacy coaches and world languages teachers, this study emphasizes the valuable role that these individuals can play in supporting EMLLs schoolwide.

Balshaw M., & Farrell, P. (2002). Teacher assistants: Practical strategies for effective classroom support. London: David Fulton.

This 136-page book addresses the work of Teaching Assistants (TAs) is based on review of literature (primarily from the UK) and the authors own research in Manchester, UK. The book is divided into four main sections. Section 1 (Background to the development of the Good Practice Guide) describes: (1) recent developments in the work of teaching assistants in the UK, and (2) the origins of the “Good Practice Guide.” Section 2 (Developing a conceptual framework for improving practice) addresses: (3) defining TA responsibilities, (4) creating partnerships with teachers and others, and (5) developing assistant teams and reviewing performance and promoting development. Section 3 (Strategies drawn from experiences in schools and LEAs) includes: (6) strategies that support the development activities, (7) developing clear job descriptions, (8) working flexibly with assistants, (9) planning teamwork with teachers, (10) drawing parents, governors and others into the work of assistants, (11) creating opportunities for team development, and (12) devising induction strategies, professional development reviews and records of achievement. Section 4 (Summary: Reflections on future practice) addresses: (13) working effectively with teaching assistants. The four main sections are followed by approximately 30 pages of appendices (e.g., indicators of effective practice, workshop activities, action research plans, sample questionnaires, job descriptions).

Barrio, B. L., Hollingshead, A. (2017). Reaching out to paraprofessionals: engaging professional development aligned with universal design for learning framework in rural communities. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 36(3) 136-145).

The literature reveals that paraprofessionals are responsible for supporting students at risk of/with disabilities in a variety of academic and nonacademic tasks, yet they often lack appropriate training. Recent studies demonstrated the effectiveness of training for paraprofessionals to support students with disabilities in a meaningful way. In rural communities, such professional development and training opportunities are often unavailable despite the need. The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of a Universal Design for Learning (UDL)–based ongoing professional development model for paraprofessionals in rural general and special education classrooms. Specifically, this study sought to first examine the professional development needs among paraprofessionals in rural communities in the inland Northwest United States and second to provide effective and ongoing professional development opportunities. Findings from this study suggest that ongoing professional development models for paraprofessionals working with students with disabilities, based on needs assessments and consistent with UDL framework, have positive effects. Discussions of implications for future research and practice are included.

Bertuccio, R. F., Runion, M. C., Culler, E. D., et. al. (2019). A comparison of autism-specific training outcomes for teachers and paraeducators. Teacher Education and Special Education.

Most students with autism engage in the general education (GE) setting for a majority of the school day. Though there are standards to identify the expectations for educating students with autism in the inclusive classroom, GE teachers and paraeducators report limited knowledge and self-efficacy in supporting students with autism, and both indicate a need for more formal training in autism. In the present study, the authors analyzed GE teachers’ and paraeducators’ levels of knowledge and self-efficacy prior to and following autism-focused in-service training. Participants attended an informational and a practical training in which knowledge, self-efficacy, and satisfaction were measured. Results for GE teachers and paraeducators followed similar patterns in that knowledge of autism increased significantly, but did not sustain over time. Levels of self-efficacy increased significantly following the practical training. GE teachers demonstrated higher levels of knowledge compared to paraeducators across time, while levels of self-efficacy converged between the two groups. Implications regarding training and professional development are discussed.

Bessette, K. K., Wills H.P.(2007). An example of an elementary school paraprofessional-implemented functional analysis and intervention. Behavioral Disorders, 32 (3), 192-210.

The Individuals With Disabilities Education Act mandates the performance of functional assessment for students with severe behavior problems. A functional analysis can be one part of this process but its use has been minimal. This study evaluates whether a paraprofessional could (a) be trained to correctly perform 3 conditions of a functional analysis with a student with severe behavior problems, and (b) be trained to correctly implement a function-based intervention. Procedures included an interview and descriptive assessment; training on performing a functional analysis; a functional analysis; a second descriptive assessment; and a function-based intervention. The results indicate it is possible to train a paraprofessional to accurately perform 3 conditions of a functional analysis, and then correctly implement a function-based intervention. (Contains 3 figures and 5 tables.)

Bingham, M.A., Spooner, F., & Browder, D. (2007). Training paraeducators to promote the use of augmentative and alternative communication by students with significant disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 42(3), 339-352.

The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of training paraeducators on (a) paraeducator prompting use of augmentative communication (AAC) systems, (b) paraeducator responding to student requests, © student use of AAC, and (d) student problem behavior via a series of multiple probe designs. Participants were three paraeducators and students. Paraeducators were trained on (a) importance of communication, (b) relationship between behavior and communication, © use of AAC, (d) how to prompt students to use AAC and respond to communications, and (e) how to self evaluate their behavior. All paraeducators increased the number of times they prompted student use of AAC and responded to student requests. All students increased use of AAC and exhibited fewer problem behaviors. (Contains 4 figures and 2 tables.)

Blalock G., Rivera, D., Anderson, K., & Kottler, B. (1992). A school district/university partnership in paraprofessional training. LD Forum, 17(3), 29-36.

The authors describe a paraprofessional training program that is based on a partnership between a university and a school district. Program content is described in terms of two strands, one for paraprofessionals who were new to the district, and another strand for paraprofessionals who were interested in more advanced content and skills. Logistical issues related to implementing the program were also discussed (e.g., recruiting presenters, training during school versus after school). Preliminary evaluation of the training program is based on three years of implementation data and has influenced modifications in the training program. The authors provide a frank summary of the advantages and limitations of implementing this training program.

Breton W. (2010). Special education paraprofessionals: Perceptions of preservice preparation, supervision, and ongoing developmental training. International Journal of Special Education, 25(1), 34-45.

Many studies have investigated the adequacy of the preservice preparation of special education teachers but few studies have investigated the preparation of special education paraprofessionals. This study investigated one rural state that does not have an identified system of formal pre-service training programs for special education paraprofessionals. Special education paraprofessionals in Maine were queried regarding their perceptions of (1) the adequacy of their training, (2) the effectiveness of their supervision, and (3) their current training needs in order for them to successfully meet their mandated role responsibilities to serve students with disabilities. Findings indicated that most respondents perceived that they were inadequately prepared for their duties and received minimal supervision. Findings also suggested that a very high level of consistency existed among the respondents with respect to their current most critical training needs. Findings further suggest that a major need exists for states and individual school districts (1) to develop and enforce competency based requirements for the employment of special education paraprofessionals, (2) to provide opportunities for quality professional development for these individuals, and (3) to ensure that special education teachers are adequately trained to fulfill their mandated supervisory responsibilities with respect to paraprofessionals.

Britton N. S., Collins, B. C., Ault, M. J., & Bausch, M. E. (2015). Using a constant time delay procedure to teach support personnel to use a simultaneous prompting procedure. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 1-12.

Within the context of a multiple baseline design, the researchers in this investigation used a constant time delay (CTD) procedure to teach two classroom support personnel (i.e., paraprofessional, peer tutor) to use a simultaneous prompting (SP) procedure when teaching a high school student with a moderate intellectual disability to (a) identify words from science core content, (b) identify words from social studies core content, (c) make Kool-Aid, and (d) alphabetize last names by their first letters. The classroom teacher implemented the CTD procedure with a high degree of fidelity, the paraprofessional and the peer tutor implemented the SP procedure with high levels of fidelity, and the student increased his ability to perform the targeted skills.

Brock, M. E., Barczak, M. A., Dueker, S. A. (2020). Effects of delayed video-based feedback and observing feedback on paraprofessional implementation of evidence-based practices for students with severe disabilities. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities.

Coaching with live observation and immediate performance feedback is an effective means to train paraprofessionals, but might not always be feasible. We used a multiple baseline across participants design with six paraprofessionals who taught elementary students with severe disabilities to test the efficacy of two innovations designed to improve the feasibility of delivering feedback. We found a functional relation between delayed, video-based performance feedback and paraprofessional implementation fidelity of two systematic prompting strategies. Observing a colleague receive feedback did result in some improvement, but did not enable all paraprofessionals to meet the training criterion. These findings suggest that delayed, video-based feedback is an effective and feasible training tool, but only observing a colleague receive feedback might be insufficient.

Brock M.E., Seaman, R.L., Downing, C. (2017). Promoting Learning for a student with a severe disability through paraprofessional training. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 42(4). 211-224.

Most paraprofessionals are not well trained to implement evidence-based practices that can improve student outcomes. In this study, we trained a paraprofessional to use evidence-based instructional practices with an elementary student with a severe disability who exhibited challenging behavior. Through functional analysis, we determined the function of the student’s problem behavior was to escape instructional demands. We used a multiple probe across behavior design to test the efficacy of video modeling and performance feedback on the paraprofessional’s implementation of three evidence-based instructional plans that incorporated high rates of positive reinforcement. Training strategies resulted in high rates of paraprofessional implementation fidelity, and paraprofessional implementation translated into improved student outcomes. These results provide an illustration of how effective paraprofessional training can promote learning for a student with severe disabilities and challenging behavior.

Brock M. E. & Carter, E. W (2013). Effects of a professional development package to prepare special education paraprofessionals to implement evidence-based practice. Journal of Special Education 49(1), 39-51.

Although paraprofessionals have become an increasingly integral part of special education services, most paraprofessionals lack training in evidence-based instructional strategies. We used a randomized contolled experimental design to examine the efficacy of a professional development training package and its individual components to equip 25 paraprofessionals to implement constant time delay. The effect of the training package on implementation fidelity was statistically significant and large in magnitude (d = 2.67; p < .001). Video modeling and coaching components were effective, although the effect of coaching alone (d = 2.23; p < .01) was larger than video modeling alone (d = .55; p = .18). Recommendations for further refining effective professional development opportunities for special education paraprofessionals are offered along with discussion of future research needs.

Brown J., & Devecchi, C. (2013). The impact of training on teaching assistants’ professional development: opportunities and future strategy. Professional Development in Education, 39(3), 369-386.

This paper draws from a study into the impact of training for teaching assistants (TAs), additional adults deployed to support children and teachers, in one urban local educational authority in England. The objectives of the study, commissioned by the local educational authority, were to identify training and professional development for TAs and to determine the impact of training on children’s achievement and TAs’ professionalism so as to inform future strategy for the content and delivery of continuing professional development for TAs. The evidence gathered through questionnaires and interviews suggests that the training is varied, localised and dependent on in-school factors. Furthermore, while training has the greatest impact on the personal sense of achievement of TAs, it seems to have little or no impact on their career progression, pay and job recognition. With regard to the impact on children’s learning, TAs and line managers are positive about the effectiveness of training; however, lack of systematic monitoring and accountability are barriers to TAs’ career progression and effective deployment. Despite the good intention of past reforms, the evidence shows that the training for TAs is still ‘a patchwork quilt of provision … about which there is continued and serious concern’ (Cajkler et al. 2006, p. 30).

Bugaj S.J. (2002). Improving the skills of special education paraprofessionals: A rural school district’s model for staff development. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 21(1), 16-24.

This article describes a rural school district’s effort to develop a staff development model for their “teacher aides” in special education classes. The developers consulted the literature and their staff as they developed the content and format for this continuous staff development model. The model provides training in the areas of: 1) basic academic instruction in behavior management; 2) Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation; 3) Instruction in lifting; and Nonviolent Crisis Intervention. The author summarized data collected from their initial needs assessment, projected program cost, and end of year questionnaire. Modification to the model’s first year of implementation are reviewed.

Butt, R (2018). Pulled in off the street’ and available: what qualifications and training do teacher assistants really need? International Journal of Inclusive Education, 22(3), 217-234.

As more Teacher Assistants (TAs) take on the responsibility of supporting students with disability and learning difficulties questions arise as to the appropriate qualifications for such work, the adequacy of training, and the policy and practice of schools employing TAs. A qualitative study, informed by multiple perspectives, was conducted in four mainstream primary schools in an Australian capital city to examine the actual qualifications of the TAs as opposed to those required by their employer. Despite role changes since the 1990s, TA qualifications remained unchanged and TAs could be employed with no post-school qualifications. Little training was provided, no training policy existed and access to training across schools differed. Participants’ perspectives on the qualifications and training required by TAs also varied. While this paper examines qualifications and training of TAs in Australia, findings are relevant to educators internationally where TAs support students with disability and learning difficulties. Tying TA qualifications to salary incentives and a career structure in which TAs are responsible for supplemental instruction only, is recommended. A Certificate IV in Education Support or School Age Education and Care, complemented by literacy and numeracy tests, are recommended minimum requirements. Finally, teachers should be included in TA recruitment and supervision.

Butt, R & Lowe, K. (2011). Teaching assistants and class teachers: differing perceptions, role confusion and the benefits of skills-based training. International Journal of Inclusive Education.

Research has shown that teaching assistants (TAs) working in mainstream classrooms with special needs students in Australia are being required to perform quite complex tasks such as curriculum modification and differentiation yet they are not required to have any formal qualifications nor training in these tasks. In the United Kingdom, TAs are not required to have any formal qualifications, while TAs employed in the USA are required to hold a two-year post-secondary degree or have obtained an associate’s or higher degree. Initial research was undertaken in Stage 1 to identify the roles and responsibilities, skills and training needs of TAs working with special needs students in one school in Canberra, Australia. Information was obtained through separate focus group interviews conducted with class teachers and TAs. Stage 2 involved the design and implementation of five skills-based training modules developed to respond to needs identified in Stage 1. In Stage 3, interviews were conducted with the TAs to determine the effect the training had on their skills and their ability to assist both the class teachers and the students whom they support. Results from the study indicate that there exists role confusion as well as a different emphasis and perception by class teachers and TAs of the skills required to perform in the role of a TA. Results also indicated that specifically targeted skills-based training benefited the TAs and the TAs perceived that this benefit flowed through to the class teachers and the students they support.

Calzada, E.J., Caldwell, M.B., Brotman, L.M. et al. (2005). Training community members to serve as paraprofessionals in an evidence-based, prevention program for parents of preschoolers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 14(3), 387-402.

Widespread dissemination of evidence-based programs for underserved populations may require non-traditional means of service provision. Collaboration with paraprofessionals from communities that are targeted for intervention holds promise as a delivery strategy that may make programs more accessible and acceptable, especially to parents living in low-income, urban neighborhoods. We describe a paraprofessional training program for individuals living in a community targeted for preventive intervention based on high levels of poverty and community violence. The design and implementation of the training program are described in the context of issues related to the use of paraprofessionals in community-based, preventive interventions with parents of young children. We also provide insight into lessons learned from a feasibility study as well as general guidelines for the development of paraprofessional training programs for delivery of evidence-based programs.

Carroll D. (2001, November/December). Considering paraeducator training, roles, and responsibilities. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34(2), 60-64.

This article addresses ways that regular and special education teachers can provide training for paraeducators and delineates the roles and responsibilities appropriate for paraeducators. Training suggestions cover the interview, orientation, sharing information, meetings, and team skills. Paraeducator responsibilities require teaching students inclusion skills, interpersonal/social skills, daily living skills, community skills, and domestic skills. (Contains references.) (DB)

Carter, E. W., O’Rourke, L., Sisco, L., & Pelsue, D. (2009). Knowledge, responsibilities, and training needs of paraprofessionals in elementary and secondary schools. Remedial and Special Education, 30, 344-359. DOI: 10.1177/0741932508324399

The authors queried 313 paraprofessionals working in 77 elementary, middle, and high schools about (a) the contexts within which they support students with disabilities, (b) their knowledge about core competencies in educating these students, © the job-related tasks they perform most frequently, (d) their perceived ability to perform these tasks effectively, and (e) their need for further training across these knowledge and task areas. The authors found that paraprofessionals worked with a broad range of students in multiple types of classrooms within varied instructional contexts. Although most reported moderate levels of understanding across core knowledge standards, paraprofessionals articulated additional training needs in each area. In light of recent initiatives focused on increasing the quality of the special education workforce, recommendations for future research and improved practice in this area are provided. (Contains 4 tables.)

Causton-Theoharis J. N. & Malmgren, K. W. (2005). Increasing peer interactions for students with severe disabilities via paraprofessional training. Exceptional Children, 71(4), 431-444.

As students with severe disabilities are included in general education settings, the use of paraprofessionals has expanded to meet these students’ needs. Unfortunately, paraprofessionals can have the inadvertent effect of intensifying the social isolation of students with disabilities. This study investigated the effectiveness of a training program aimed at teaching four paraprofessionals to facilitate interactions between students with severe disabilities and their peers. A multiple baseline, single-subject design across four paraprofessional/student pairs was utilized. Observational data were collected over the baseline and post intervention phases. Rates of paraprofessional facilitative behavior increased following the intervention. Additionally, rates of student interaction increased immediately and dramatically and were maintained through the maintenance probe.

Clarke, K., Cautilli, J.D. (2001). What behavioral consultants and parents need to know: training paraprofessionals to work in home-based programs. The Behavior Analyst Today, 2(1), 55-57.

Often we receive calls or e-mails from parents or professionals asking for help because their child appears to be making less progress in their home program. Often they mention problems such as the child is mastering few tasks or is having less success with verbal skill learning. It is important to recognize that this may occur for many reasons. Sometimes the behavioral consultant is inexperienced in coordinating a home programs and does not have the necessary skills to adjust protocols when progress is not occurring. Other times the child has mastered the programs and is ready for a new level of programming. A host of these factors exist and little data is available to determine what to do at these points. However, in some cases parents believe that it is the result of paraprofessionals losing interest in the program. In these situations, parents often report that less work is being done or the staff is not working as hard as they did previously. This paper has been written to address this last issue.

Coates, M., Lamb, J., Bartlett, B., & Datta, P. (2017). Autism Spectrum Disorder coursework for teachers and teacher-aides: An investigation of courses offered in Queensland, Australia. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 42(11), 65-80.

The content and structure of pre-service and teacher-aide programs has major implications for training, management, support and deployment of teachers and teacher-aides in mainstream schools working with students who have ASD. Data pertaining to course content and structure were collected from university and teacher-aide training websites, program enrolment guides, and through direct contact with institutions in Queensland, Australia. 101 education programs were narrowed down to 45 in early-childhood/primary education, and 8 online teacher-aide training programs. Findings indicate the urgent need for academics in institutions to begin working towards redesigning programs that deliver best practices in ASD for pre-service educators.

Cobb C.(2007). Training paraprofessionals to effectively work with all students. The Reading Teacher, 60 (7), 686-689.

Administrators (n=235) of programs for children with communication disorders in 11 Midwestern states were surveyed to assess trends in the training and utilization of paraprofessionals. Topics included current trends in employment; paraprofessional training; use of professional and state guidelines; and district policies for supervision. (Author/DB)

Council M. R., Gardner III, R., Cartledge, G. & Telesman, A. O. (2019). Improving reading within an urban elementary school: computerized intervention and paraprofessional factors. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 63(2), 162-174.

Reading RACES–Relevant and Culturally Engaging Stories (RR) is a repeated reading intervention using culturally relevant literature that is delivered through computer software. This study extends previous research with RR intended to further evaluate the effects of RR on the fluency and comprehension growth of second-grade students with reading risk within an urban setting. A second focus was to determine the degree to which paraprofessional school personnel could successfully implement the intervention. Five second graders and the school librarian (paraprofessional) participated in this study. A multiple baseline probe across participants revealed a functional relation between RR and student participants’ gains in oral reading fluency and comprehension. Procedural integrity data also revealed that participants (i.e., students and librarian) were able to use and monitor the program with integrity to the maximum extent enabled by the technology. These findings extend the research base for RR. Limitations and directions for future research are discussed.

Cremin H., Thomas, G., & Vincett, K. (2003). Learning zones: An evaluation of three models for improving learning through teacher/teaching assistant teamwork. Support for Learning, 18(4), 154-164.

This study, conducted in the UK, explored the use of three different models for utilizing teaching assistants in general education classrooms. These three models, all designed to enhance role clarification and communication, included:

• Room Management (taking on different roles such as “Individual Helper,” “Activity Manager,” and “Mover”)
• Zoning (where there is more than one - adult involved in teaching and organizing the class)
• Reflective Teamwork

Six classes from six different schools participated. Two classes (Grades 2 and 3), implemented each of the three models during an hour literacy period, once per week for a six weeks. Pre-intervention data was collected by videotaping the literacy sessions prior to use of the models and coding the level of academic data for each child in each classroom using a 10 minute sample per student and a 10 second coding interval. The same procedure was used at the end of the six-week period. Qualitative data, in form of interviews and focus groups with teachers and assistants were also conducted. Teachers were also asked to maintain documentary records to show how the interventions were implemented (e.g., planning sheets for the literacy hour).

Davis, R.W., Kotecki, J.E., & Harvey, M.W. (2007). Responsibilities and training needs of paraprofessionals in physical education. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 24(1), 70-83.

This study describes responsibilities and training needs of paraeducators in physical education. Paraeducators (n =138) employed in 34 Midwestern schools received a 27-item questionnaire. Of the 138 paraeducators contacted, 76 responded, resulting in a 55.1% response rate. Only 16% of the total respondents (n = 76) reported receiving specific training in physical education; however, 68 (90%) indicated a willingness to be trained. Less than half (n = 29, 38%) indicated participating in physical education by escorting students, providing cues, and working individually with students. Fewer than eight (28%) of the physical education paraeducators assisted with assessments, shared IEP suggestions, or helped implement behavior modification programs. The most desired training areas included activity modifications, attributes of students with disabilities, and knowledge of motor development.

DaFonte, M. A., & Capizzi, A. M. (2015). A module-based approach: Training paraeducators on evidence-based approaches. Physical Disabilities: Education & Related Services, 34(1), 31-54.

Paraeducators are on the front lines in special education settings, providing support to teachers and students with significant disabilities and specific health-care needs. The important role they play demands efficient and cost-effective training in core skills. This study utilized a multiple-baseline across behaviors design to evaluate a module-based training program for paraeducators targeting three instructional strategies that are commonly used in the education of students with a wide range of disabilities: praise, pause, and prompts. Results demonstrated variability in accurate and consistent use of these practices across participants after completion of the modules. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

D’Amico, M.M., Algozzine, B., Algozzine, K.M., Correa, V.I. & Mularib, R. (2019). Content-driven faculty development in community college early childhood education programs. Community College Journal of Research and practice. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 43(1), 74-79.

Community colleges are key providers of early childhood teacher and paraprofessional education, and their programs include content knowledge that helps future educators work effectively with young children with and without disabilities in inclusive environments. In this article, we describe the Advancing Community College Efforts in Paraprofessional Training (ACCEPT) Project, a multi-year collaboration to infuse special education content into four North Carolina early childhood workforce education associate degree programs. The goals of the project included creating a climate that fostered and encouraged ongoing community college and university faculty collaboration around the planning, delivery, and assessment of special education content infused within multiple early childhood program courses. Project objectives are presented within the framework employed by Murray (1995, 1998, 1999, 2000) that includes climate, structure, connections with rewards, faculty ownership, colleague support, and perceived value by administrators. Implications for practice include the importance of content, project standards, and faculty ownership.

Deardorff, P., Glasenapp, G., Schalock. M., & Udell, T. (2007). TAPS: An innovative professional development program for paraeducators in early childhood special education*. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 26(3), 3-15.

This article describes an innovative professional development program for paraeducators working with children with disabilities in early childhood special education settings. The model includes four components: (a) assessment of learning needs, (b) the formation of an individualized professional development plan, (c) participation in self-directed training using the TAPS curriculum materials, and (d) feedback and support by supervisors. The model was implemented with three cohorts of participants in Early Childhood Special Education programs serving rural and suburban communities in Oregon. Positive outcomes were found for all paraeducators, regardless of experience or education level. Implications for alternative potentially cost-effective rural professional development programs for paraeducators are discussed.

Devlin, P. (2005). Effect of continuous improvement training on student interaction and engagement. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 30(2), 47-59.

This article describes a preliminary study investigating whether a specific awareness and training for six teacher-paraprofessional teams would have an effect on the inclusion of six students with mild to severe disabilities in elementary general education environments. An experimental design employing a pretest-posttest control group with matched subjects was used to evaluate the effectiveness of training that emphasized the continuous improvement components of teamwork, goal setting, and data collection. Data focusing on student interaction and engagement were collected using MS-CISSAR. Results indicated an increase in teacher interaction and a decrease in paraprofessional interaction with special education students after the training component. Engaged behavior was not found to change noticeably for this group of students. Individual student strategies and benefits are also reported. The article includes a discussion of training format, key elements, and their relationship to long-term systems change. (Contains 6 tables.)

Douglas S.N., Uitto, D.J., Reinfelds, C.L., D’Agostino. S. (2018). A systematic review of paraprofessional training materials. Journal of Special Education. First published June 1, 2018.

Paraprofessional training is essential for high quality special education services. Yet, educators may struggle to select appropriate materials for paraprofessional training. A review was conducted of 26 paraprofessional training materials using a rubric designed to evaluate the alignment with federal legislation and professional standards, and use of research-based adult learning methods. Results indicate many training materials aligned with federal legislation, but varied in their content focus, alignment with paraprofessional standards, and use of adult learning methods. Based on results of the review, three paraprofessional training materials reflected high quality training. Features of paraprofessional training materials, recommendations for practice, suggested improvements to training materials, limitations, and future research directions are discussed.

Douglas S.N., McNaughton, D. & Light, J. (2013). Online training of paraeducators to support the communication of young children. Journal of Early Intervention, 35(1), 223-242.

Paraeducators are frequent sources of support for young children with disabilities in early childhood settings. However, they typically have limited training in providing communication opportunities for children with complex communication needs (CCN). The impact was investigated of providing training in a communication interaction strategy to three paraeducators working with young children with diagnoses of autism and developmental delay. The training included interactive online components as well as opportunities to use and ask questions about the strategy, and reflection on strategy use. After participating in the training activities, the paraeducators were observed to provide a greater number of appropriate communication opportunities during play interactions with the young children. The children with CCN also showed increases in the number of communication acts performed. In addition, paraeducator responses (including comments on child behaviors) increased. Results of social validity and generalization measures are reported. Limitations of the study are also discussed.

Elrod G. F., Insko, L., & Williams, L. (1993). A descriptive study of instructional assistants in rural and remote eastern Oregon: Implications for professional development. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 12 (4), 22-30.

A survey of 14 special education instructional assistants in rural Oregon showed they were generally mature in age and had lived in eastern Oregon for many years. Over half had some college training. Most were assigned to elementary resource rooms. Respondents rated “instructional methodology” as their strongest training preference. (KS)

Feehan P. F. & Wade, S. L. (1998). The paraprofessional alternative. Journal of Career Development, 25(2), 149-157.

Limited resources and demand for expanded services led to the use of paraprofessional staff at the University of Missouri Career Center. Based on a peer helping model, the center uses college students as peer counselors, with appropriate selection, training, and supervision. (SK)

Forster, E.M., & Holbrook, M. C. (2005). Implications of paraprofessional supports for students with visual impairments. Re:View: Rehabilitation and Education for Blindness and Visual Impairment, 36(4), 155-163.

The implementation of high quality and carefully individualized educational programs carried out by qualified professionals has been shown to largely mitigate the impact of visual impairment on development. Research has also shown that, in the absence of high quality, specialized intervention, children who are blind or have visual impairments may be at an increased risk for literacy problems and that these difficulties may have an adverse impact on their educational career and employment potential. In fact, estimates of under- or unemployment among adults with visual impairments have been reported at approximately 70% or higher, and these employment statistics have been connected to the individual’s previous access to early and frequent quality literacy instruction. This article discusses the role of paraprofessional supports for students with visual impairments, and includes the following sections: (1) Reasons for Using Paraprofessional Supports; (2) The Role of the Paraprofessional; (3) Effectiveness of Paraprofessionals; and (4) Paraprofessional Training.

Frantz R., Douglas, S., Meadan, H., Sands, M., Bhana, N., D’Agostino, S. (2020). Exploring the professional development needs of early childhood paraeducators and supervising teacher. Topics in Early Childhood Education.

Paraeducators play an important role supporting children with developmental disabilities in early childhood settings, and the current educational system has come to rely heavily on paraeducator supports. Unfortunately, most paraeducators receive limited training prior to engaging in their classroom roles and responsibilities, and teachers receive limited training related to supervising paraeducator staff. This study examined the roles and responsibilities, professional development experiences, perceived professional development needs, suggestions for professional development, and perceived barriers to professional development among early childhood paraeducators working with children with developmental disabilities and their supervising teachers using focus group method and a questionnaire. Implications for improving professional development practices among early childhood staff, remediating barriers to effective professional development, and future directions for research are discussed.

Frantz R., Hansen, S. G., Erturk, B., Machalicek, W., Squires, J. & Raulston, T. J. (2019). Play to teach: coaching paraeducators to facilitate communication in the preschool classroom. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 124(6), 497-510. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-124.6.497

Paraeducators are ideal candidates for delivering communication interventions to children with developmental disabilities and delays (DD) because they spend a significant amount of time with these children. However, professional development is often inadequate and limited research supports best practices. Additionally, paraeducators work with multiple children with varying skill levels. Little research has been conducted on the use of existing strategies with multiple children. This single-case study examines the effect of a training package on paraeducators’ fidelity of intervention implementation with a child dyad and subsequent child outcomes. Results suggest that formal coaching contributed to improved fidelity of intervention implementation. Furthermore, paraeducators were able to use intervention strategies with children with varying communication skills and goals. Variable increases in child communication were also detected.

French N.K., & Cabell, E.A (1993). Are community college programs for paraeducators feasible? Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 17(2), 131-140.

Examines the feasibility of developing training programs in the Colorado community college system for paraeducators (i.e., technicians who provide personal care, instructional services and behavior management to students with disabilities and remedial needs) based on a survey of directors of special education, teachers, and personnel directors. Suggests characteristics of such programs. (DMM).

Geslak D. S. (2019). Paraeducators: valuable front-line insights for physical educators. Palaestra, 33(4), 53-57.

With the rise in autism and related disorders, paraeducators are more present in physical education (PE) and adapted physical education (APE). However, a paraeducator’s presence is not always an active one. Research shows that this is because paraeducators are not properly trained to work in PE/APE. While physical educators would like to properly train them, they have not been adequately prepared on how to work with paraeducators, while also having limited time in their daily schedules. By understanding paraeducator’s daily responsibilities–from their perspective–opportunities will be revealed as we all work collaboratively to help this deserving community.

Ghere G., York-Barr, J., & Sommerness, J. (2002). Supporting students with disabilities in inclusive schools: A curriculum for job-embedded paraprofessional development. Minneapolis: Institute on Community Education ( University of Minnesota).

This facilitator’s manual is part of a curriculum to help special educators teach paraprofessionals to support individual students with disabilities effectively, especially students with moderate to severe disabilities who require individualized support. Special aspects of the curriculum include its site-based and job embedded approach as well as the incorporation of follow-up coaching and feedback. Introductory material provides a curriculum overview and answers to questions about the curriculum. The curriculum is comprised of four instructional parts with a total of seven instructional units that address: (1) what inclusive education means; (2) what to teach (ways to maximize learning opportunities for students); (3) how to instruct (prompting, waiting, fading); (4) how to instruct (use of natural cues, consequences, and supports); (5) how to instruct (individualized adaptations); (6) how to interact (behavior as communication); and (7) how to interact (student relationships). Each of the seven units includes a unit guide, directions for facilitation, and handouts suitable for reproduction. (Contains 13 references.) (DB)

Giangreco M.F., Backus, L., Cichoski, Kelly, E., Sherman, P., & Mavropoulos, Y. (2003). Paraeducator training materials to facilitate inclusive education: Initial field-test data. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 22(1), 17-27.

This study presents initial field-test evaluation feedback on training materials designed to help prepare paraeducators to assist in the provision of special education in inclusive schools. Feedback was collected from 213 paraeducators who participated in the course, Paraeducator Entry- Level Training for Supporting Students with Disabilities, 105 who participated in the course, Supporting Students with Challenging Behaviors: A Paraeducator Curriculum, and the 23 instructors who taught a combined total of 20 sections of these courses in a variety of formats (e.g., face-to-face, interactive TV, intensive summer institute). Findings indicated that paraeducators gained new knowledge, perspectives, and skills that had direct application in their work. Both paraeducators and course instructors rated the materials favorably and provided feedback to improve them. Implications are offered for infusing paraeducator content into school-based staff development as well as training programs for prospective special and general education teachers.

Giangreco M.F., & Broer, S.M. (March/April 2003). The paraprofessional conundrum: Why we need alternative support strategies. TASH Connections Newsletter, 29 (3/4), 22-23.

Glang A., Gersten, R., Singer, G. (1990). Computer-assisted video instruction in training paraprofessionals to teach brain-damaged clients. Journal of Special Education Technology, 10(3), 137-46.

This study evaluated the effects of computer-assisted video instruction (CAVI) on three paraprofessionals’ implementation of the firming strategy (which presents new material in alternation with previously learned material) with three severely brain-damaged young men. Results indicated CAVI effectiveness with proficient strategy implementation, positive paraprofessional attitudes, and significant client behavior changes. (DB)

Graves, S. (2013). New roles, old stereotypes — developing a school workforce in English schools. School Leadership and Management, 34(3), 255-268.

In this paper, the author explores the development of school staff who are employed to support pupils in the classroom, specifically the teaching assistant/higher level teaching assistant role. These roles have undergone considerable change following the introduction of Workforce Reform and Remodelling in English schools and the National Agreement. In practice, the introduction of this agreement into schools appears to have a powerful gendered aspect which limits choice and agency for individuals and prevents the development of a coherent workforce. I argue that the discourse of maternality within which the school support role has evolved supposes a level of self-sacrifice and conscientiousness which is gendered and conceals the exploitative nature of the role in terms of poor pay and career prospects. Furthermore, the growth of support staff in English schools to undertake roles previously assigned to teachers has had the effect of disaggregating and de-professionalising the teacher role and weakening the traditional job boundaries which defined the work of support staff.

Hall, L.J., Grundon, G.S., Pope, C., Romero, A.B. (2010) Training paraprofessionals to use behavioral strategies when educating learners with autism spectrum disorders across environments. Behavioral Interventions, 25(1), 37-51.

Although the use of paraprofessionals in the education of young children with autism spectrum disorders(ASD) is a common practice, research on effective training procedures is scarce. The following study used a multiple-baseline design across settings replicated by five paraprofessionals to evaluate their use of behavioral strategies with young children with, or at risk for, autism spectrum disorder. A training package consisting of a workshop and performance feedback by their supervising special education teacher served as the intervention. Results revealed that even though the paraprofessionals demonstratedskills in the use of behavioral strategies at the workshop, there was either no transfer or generalization tothe preschool or home environments where they worked, or their use of skills decreased over time. When performance feedback was provided to all participants, their correct use of strategies increased. The training model evaluated in this study provides an example of one that could be employed in a typical public school classroom or early intervention program. Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Hall L. J., McClannahan, L. E., & Krantz, P. J. (1995). Promoting independence in integrated classrooms by teaching aides to use activity schedules and decreased prompts. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 30, 208-217.

This study aimed to increase the independent engagement of integrated elementary students with disabilities, by decreasing prompts from aides and using pictorial activity schedules to diminish dependence on adult support. A nonconcurrent multiple-baseline design, replicated across three aide-child pairs, revealed that the intervention resulted in prompt reduction by the integration aides. (Author/DB)

Hammeken P.A. (1996). Inclusion: An essential guide for the paraprofessional. Minnetonka, MN: Peytral Publications.

This manual is designed to be a practical reference tool for paraprofessionals and teachers working in inclusionary settings. It provides an overview of the special education system, basic guidelines to support students in inclusionary settings, and lists a variety of strategies and ideas to implement in the classroom setting. The first chapter reviews myths and realties associated with inclusionary practices and the benefits of inclusion. Other chapter content includes: chapter two, the special education department; chapter three, getting started: the paraprofessional’s role; chapter four, the paraprofessional and the special education teacher; chapter five, modification categories; and chapter six, modification strategies. The appendix includes seventeen reproducible forms to assist with various aspects of inclusive schooling.

Hansen D. (1997). Use of focus-group needs assessment for planning paraprofessional staff development in Iowa’s education settings. Journal of Children’s Communication Development, 18(1), 81-90.

Describes how focus groups comprised of speech-language professionals, paraprofessionals, general and special education teachers, and parents in Iowa were used to conduct a needs assessment of issues in staff development and use of paraprofessional personnel and to design job-relevant personnel development programs. An attached chart lists themes emerging from the groups. (DB).

Harper V. (1994). Multicultural perspectives in the classroom: Professional preparation for educational paraprofessionals. Action in Teacher Education, XVI (3), 66-78.

Paraprofessionals often represent the closest linking of language and culture between communities and schools, taking the lead in teaching second-language learners. Their lack of professional education can create situations where the neediest children are served by the least prepared adults. The article suggests a professional career ladder for paraprofessionals. (SM)

Herzberg T.S., Rosenblum, L.P., Robbins, M.E. (2016). Results of an online refresher course to build braille transcription skills in professionals. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 110(4) 269-273.

Certified transcribers, non-certified transcribers, volunteers, paraeducators, and teachers of students with visual impairments transcribe braille materials for K-12 students (those in kindergarten through 12th grade), and their training and level of preparedness varies greatly (Corn & Wall, 2002; Herzberg & Stough, 2007; Rosenblum & Herzberg, 2011). With the exception of conference sessions, courses offered by the Hadley School for the Blind, and university courses, there is not a national vehicle for individuals to easily and inexpensively refresh their knowledge of braille formatting, tactile graphics production, and braille codes, including the Nemeth Braille Code for Mathematics and Science Notation (hereafter referred to as Nemeth code). Data from the Herzberg and Rosenblum (2014) study regarding frequently occurring Nemeth code and formatting errors as well as variability in the production of tactile graphics were used in the development of an online refresher course. This article reports the results of a follow-up survey (referred to as the survey) of individuals who completed all course requirements. The University of South Carolina Upstate and the U.S. Department of Education (H235E090010) funded the development of the course. The following research questions were explored: (1) What knowledge about the Nemeth code, formatting of mathematics materials, and producing tactile graphics was gained through the completion of the online course? (2) What, if any, impact did the completion of the online course have on the way in which participants prepared mathematics materials in braille? and (3) What course features were helpful? Methods, results, limitations, and implications for the future are discussed.

Higgins, H. & Gulliford, A. (2014). Understanding teaching assistant self efficacy in role and in training: its susceptibility to influence. Educational Psychology in Practice: Theory, Research and Practice in Educational Psychology, 30(2), 120-138.

There has been a noted growth in the number of teaching assistants (TAs) in mainstream schools. Research is inconclusive about their efficacy at changing outcomes for children and has proposed more training for TAs. Generic training models have suggested that enhancing self-efficacy in turn improves performance. This exploratory study investigated factors that may influence TAs’ sense of self-efficacy and its susceptibility to influence in training. Following two modes of school-based training by educational psychologists (EPs) data were collected from 14 mainstream secondary school TAs using focus groups. A thematic analysis noted themes regarding self-efficacy, aligned with Bandura’s sources of information, outcome expectations and whole school support and norms. Review of the data from this study is likely to be able to guide potential trainers to coach-consult strategies which are self-efficacy supportive and which address contextual factors including the perceived status of TAs in schools.

Hilton A., & Gerlach, K. (1997). Employment, preparation and management of paraeducators: Challenges to appropriate services for students with developmental disabilities. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 32, 71-77.

Presents a position statement of the Board of Directors of the Division on Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities that reviews the employment, preparation, and management of paraeducators. The statement addresses role definition, employment and management, legal and ethical responsibilities, job descriptions, paraeducator training, and supervisory training. (CR)

Jolly, A. & Evans, S. (2005). Teacher assistants move to the front of the class: Job-embedded learning pays off in student achievement. Journal of Staff Development, 26(3), 8-13.

Job-embedded professional learning is a familiar concept in the Edenton-Chowan Public School System. In this article, the authors present D.F. Walker Elementary School in Edenton, North Carolina, a school where the entire staff focuses on continual learning, and teacher assistants engage in job-embedded, ongoing professional development to become effective instructional assistants for the teachers and students they serve. In addition, the authors state that it is not the law which drives behind the principal’s decision to include teacher assistants in learning teams, but it is to raise teacher assistants’ level of expertise in the area of literacy.

Keller C.L., Bucholz, J., & Brady, M.P. (2007). Yes, I can! Empowering paraprofessionals to teach learning strategies. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(3), 18-23.

Paraprofessionals are an important part of the instructional team for students with disabilities. As recently as 10 to 20 years ago, a paraprofessional was often “just an aide.” The primary job duties for most paraprofessionals included making copies, monitoring students during lunch, and taking attendance. The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA 2004), emphasizes the importance of learner centered instruction to meet the needs of children with diverse abilities and learning styles. As a result of this act, the roles and responsibilities of paraprofessionals began to change. Although paraprofessionals still perform routine housekeeping and clerical tasks, they also review and reinforce lessons.

Kerins P., Casserly, A.M., Dearcy, E., Harvey, D., McDonagh, D., Tiernan, B. (2018). The professional development needs of special needs assistants in Irish post-primary schools. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 33(1), 31-46.

According to government policy in Ireland, special needs assistants (SNAs) may be employed in post-primary schools to support students deemed to have chronic and serious care needs. There is currently no national policy regarding the continuing professional development (CPD) of SNAs, to meet the requirements of their role. This study investigated the CPD needs of SNAs, working in post-primary schools, in the Border, Midland and Western region of Ireland. Findings from a survey of SNAs and principals revealed that while the majority agreed CPD for SNAs should be compulsory, an ad hoc approach to provision of CPD prevailed, and barriers to CPD were identified. Findings also indicated that CPD in supporting students with Emotional and Behaviour Disorders was a key requirement identified by principals and SNAs. Supporting students with Autism Spectrum Disorder and promoting student independence were also identified as areas for CPD. The need for a national policy with regard to CPD for SNAs is highlighted.

Kim S. Koegel, R.L., Koegel, L.K. (2016). Training paraprofessionals to target socialization in students with ASD - Fidelity of Implementation and Social Validity. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 19(2), 102-114.

Although the literature suggests that it is feasible to train paraprofessionals to effectively implement social interventions for students with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), there is a paucity of research that addresses the social validity of these programs. The present study replicated and extended previous research on paraprofessional training, as well as assessed social validity. Our results suggest that (a) paraprofessionals can be trained to fidelity using a package consisting of lecture and performance feedback, (b) there are collateral gains for paraprofessionals following the training, (c) the social interactions between students with ASD and typically developing peers improve following paraprofessional training, and (d) there is strong social validity in regard to acceptability of the training program. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

Kim Y.G., Phillips, B. (2016). Five minutes a day to improve comprehension monitoring in oral language contexts: An exploratory intervention study with prekindergartners from low-income families. Topics in Language Disorders, 36(4), 356-367.

Comprehension monitoring has received substantial attention as a reading comprehension strategy. However, comprehension monitoring is not limited to the reading context, but applies to the oral context for children’s listening comprehension, which is a critical foundation for reading comprehension. Therefore, a systematic and explicit instructional routine for comprehension monitoring in oral language contexts was developed for prekindergartners from low-income families. Instruction was provided in small groups for approximately 5 min a day for 4 days a week for 8 weeks. Results showed that children who received comprehension monitoring instruction were better at identifying inconsistencies in short stories than those who received typical instruction with a medium effect size (d = .57). These results suggest comprehension monitoring is malleable and can be taught in the oral language context to prereaders from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Furthermore, the instructional routine reported in this study is flexible for individual, small group, or whole class settings, and likely can be easily delivered by educators such as teachers and paraeducators.

Knowles, C.L., D’Agostino, S.R., Kunze, M.G., Uitto, D.J., Douglas, S.N. (2022). A systematic review of asynchronous online learning opportunities for paraeducators. The Journal of Special Education, April 2022. doi:10.1177/00224669221085306.

Due to a variety of factors, many paraeducators receive little to no opportunities to advance their professional skills. Asynchronous online learning opportunities offer a flexible way for districts to provide paraeducators opportunities to advance their knowledge, although little is known about what online resources are available, their features, or their overall quality. A review was conducted of 19 freely available online learning opportunities to evaluate features, alignment with federal legislation and professional standards, active engagement features, and usability. Results indicated that features and quality indicators varied across resources and half of the resources required active user engagement. Limitations, suggestions for future development, and future research directions are discussed with an emphasis on factors related to online delivery.

Koegel, R. L., Kim, S., & Koegel, L. K. (2014). Training paraprofessionals to improve socialization in children with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(9), 2197-2208.

An important line of research relates to whether school personnel, such as paraprofessionals, who are present during unstructured social periods, such as lunch-recess, could successfully implement interventions to improve socialization between students with ASD and their typical peers in a group setting. Therefore, within the context of a multiple baseline across participants design, we assessed whether training paraprofessionals to provide social interventions would enhance social development in students with ASD in a group setting. Results showed that paraprofessionals who were not providing any social opportunities during baseline were able to meet fidelity of implementation following a brief training. Consequently, the children with ASD increased their levels of engagement and rates of initiation with typically developing peers following intervention. Implications for training paraprofessionals to implement effective social interventions for students with ASD are discussed.

Lasater M. W., Johnson, M. M., & Fitzgerald, M. (2000). Completing the education mosaic: Paraeducator professional development options. Teaching Exceptional Children, 33(1), 46-51.

As part of a summer institute, partner teachers and paraeducators join a facilitator in a group totaling 25 to spend time together as a study group. Participants have read research from book chapters and journal articles. Now, the facilitator uses an agreed-on structure for this full-day session to help participants examine, inteφret, and apply the information studied to their particular environments and students.

Layden, S., Hendricks, D., Inge, K., Sima, A., Erickson, D., Avellone, L., & Wehman, P. (2018). Providing online professional development for paraprofessionals serving those with ASD: Evaluating a statewide initiative. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 48(2), 285-294. doi: 10.3233/JVR-180932.

Paraprofessionals play an integral role in educating students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Students with ASD have unique learning characteristics which require specialized knowledge and skills in order to support them effectively in schools. However, paraprofessionals often do not receive the training needed to support this student population. OBJECTIVE:Delivering effective professional development to paraprofessionals is essential to the success of these students. METHODS:A model for delivering online professional development to paraprofessionals on a statewide level was implemented and evaluated. RESULTS:The evaluation concentrated on whether the online course changed the perceived knowledge and implementation of evidence-based practices and the attitudes of paraprofessionals toward students with ASD. CONCLUSION:Additionally, the existence of a relationship between occupational characteristics and participants’ reported knowledge was explored.

Leblanc, M.P., Ricciardi, J.N., & Luiselli, J.K. (2005). Improving discrete trial instruction by paraprofessional staff through an abbreviated performance feedback intervention. Education & Treatment of Children, 28(1), 76-82.

We evaluated an abbreviated performance feedback intervention as a training strategy to improve discrete trial instruction of children with autism by three paraprofessional staff (assistant teachers) at a specialized day school. Feedback focused on 10 discrete trial instructional skills demonstrated by the staff during teaching sessions. Following sessions, staff received verbal praise from a trainer for skills displayed correctly, and clarification/redirection was given contingent on incorrect performance. As demonstrated in a multiple baseline design, staff rapidly acquired the discrete trial instructional skills with intervention. Improved instruction was maintained up to 11 weeks post-training, and procedures were judged highly acceptable by staff. The benefits of performance feedback, and issues related to staff training, are discussed.

Ledford, J. R., Zimmerman, K. N., & Harbin, E. R. (2018). Improving the use of evidence-based instructional practices for paraprofessionals. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. Advance online publication.

Coaching has been shown to improve the use of evidence-based instructional practices (EBIPs), but relatively few studies have been conducted to assess the effectiveness of coaching for adults belonging to minority groups and paraprofessionals in public elementary school settings. In this study, a multiple probe design across participants was used to assess the effectiveness of coaching and the provision of feedback on the use of prompting procedures and associated practices for three adults supporting three young students with autism in a self-contained elementary school setting. Results showed improved use of target practices and increased student engagement. More research is needed regarding the training and coaching of teaching teams and the use of evidence-based coaching and feedback practices to assist paraprofessionals in implementing EBIPs with small groups of students and in a variety of educational settings.

Lerman, D. C., Luck, K. M., Smothermon, S., Zey, B. A., Taylor, C., Smith, L. D. (2019). Training of paraprofessionals by their classroom teachers: a descriptive evaluation of pyramidal training outcomes. Journal of Behavior Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-019-09341-w

Pyramidal training may ofer an efcient approach for disseminating behavior analytic teaching practices into public schools serving students with autism. In this study, we evaluated 16 teachers’ use of behavioral skills training (BST) while they trained paraprofessionals to use discrete-trial teaching (DTT). All paraprofessionals demonstrated high levels of procedural integrity following the training, although six of the 16 teachers received experimenter feedback to increase the integrity of the paraprofessional’s performance. A descriptive assessment of the training indicated that the majority of teachers used vocal instructions, modeling, and role play while training their paraprofessionals to implement DTT but only half of the teachers collected procedural integrity data to monitor the paraprofessionals’ performance. Although all teachers provided feedback to their paraprofessionals during the in situ portion of the training, the teachers were more likely to deliver feedback for errors than for correctly implemented components. These fndings suggest that training teachers to implement BST with their paraprofessionals is an efective and socially valid approach to dissemination

Lieberman L.J. & Conroy, P. (2013). Training of paraeducators for physical education for children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 107(1), 17-28.

Introduction: Children with visual impairments are often behind their peers in physical and motor skills. It is often necessary for these children to work one to one with a paraeducator to gain the benefits of physical education, improve physical activity and motor skills, and attain the basic standards of the Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC). Paraeducators are trained to work in classrooms, yet are rarely, if ever, trained in the subject of physical education. The purpose of the study presented here was to determine current training practices for paraeducators in the classroom and what is needed to ensure proper training for physical education for paraeducators who work with children with visual impairments. Methods: In the study, 143 professionals and parents were given a validated questionnaire related to the training needs of paraeducators for physical education. Results: The results indicated that although the majority of children with visual impairments attended physical education classes with their paraeducators, only 11% of the paraeducators were trained in physical education. The participants thought that the training should consist of safety practices, guiding techniques, teaching strategies, information on visual impairments, and most areas of the ECC. They thought that this information should be delivered in the form of a video or guest speakers and that the children with visual impairments should be included when possible. Discussion: Because of the large and varied sample in the study, the information gained could be used to create a training video for paraeducators who work with children with visual impairments in physical education. Implications for practitioners: The results of the study highlight areas that should be included as the foundation of training paraeducators for physical education.

Maggin D.M., Fallon, L.M., Hagermoser-Sanetti, L.M. & Ruberto, L.M. (2012) Training paraeducators to implement a group contingency protocol: direct and collateral effects. Behavioral Disorders, 38(1), 18-37.

The present study investigated the effects of an intensive training protocol on levels of paraeducator fidelity to a group contingency intervention used to manage the classroom behavior of students with EBD. A multiple baseline design across classrooms was used to determine whether the training was associated with initial and sustained increases in treatment fidelity. Data were also collected on the effects of paraeducator use of the group contingency program on rates of paraeducator, teacher, and student behavior. Results indicated that the training package was associated with immediate increases in paraeducator fidelity, which were subsequently sustained following the removal of systematic performance feedback on paraeducator adherence to the protocol. The implementation of the group contingency program by paraeducators also led to increases in the rates of interactions between paraeducators and students, increases in the rates of teacher instruction, and decreases in the rates of aggressive behavior by students. Findings of the study are discussed within the context of developing effective training methods for paraeducators working alongside students with EBD.

Malmgren K.W., Causton-Theoharis, J.N., & Trezek, B.J. (2005). Increasing peer interactions for students with behavioral disorders via paraprofessional training. Behavioral Disorders, 31(1), 95-106.

As more and more students with behavioral disorders (BD) are included in general education classrooms, the use of paraprofessionals in one-on-one support roles has expanded. Unfortunately, the use of paraprofessionals to provide one-on-one assistance can result in social isolation for students with disabilities. This multiple-baseline single-subject study examined the effectiveness of a paraprofessional training program designed to teach paraprofessionals to facilitate interactions between elementary-age students with BD and their peers in the general education classroom. Baseline and postintervention observational data reflecting: (1) the proximity of the paraprofessionals in relation to the students with BD; (2) the amount and type of facilitative behaviors displayed by the paraprofessionals; and (3) the rate of peer interactions experienced by the participating students with BD were collected for three paraprofessional/student pairs over a 7-week period. Rates of student interaction increased following the intervention. Rates of paraprofessional facilitative behavior also increased, though less markedly. Additionally, after the training intervention, all participating paraprofessionals faded their assistance more frequently and spent less time in the immediate vicinity of the students they served. Recommendations for use of paraprofessionals in the classroom and for paraprofessional training are discussed. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

Mann S. & Whitworth, J. (2017). Responsibilities and training of paraprofessionals in alternative schools: implications for practice. Journal of At-Risk Issues, 20(2), 25-34.

Abstract: For many years a leading approach to teaching at-risk students and reducing school dropout has been the use of alternative schools. There are unique challenges to providing educational services in alternative schools and teachers in those schools need specialized knowledge and skills to address these challenges. The same can be inferred for paraprofessionals working in alternative schools. In general, the use of paraprofessional support for students in alternative schools has increased over the years. Oftentimes these students exhibit academic and behavioral challenges, and yet much of the research indicates that paraprofessionals working with students with academic and behavioral challenges have little training to do so. The purpose of this study was to examine the roles, responsibilities, and professional development needs of paraprofessionals working with secondary students at alternative schools as perceived by administrators, teachers, and paraprofessionals in those schools.

Martella R.C., Marchand-Martella, N.E., Macfarlane, C.A., & Young, K.R. (1993). Improving classroom behavior of a student with severe disabilities via paraprofessional training. British Columbia Journal of Special Education, 17, 33-44.

Systematic training of a paraprofessional in effective instructional procedures with a student with severe mental retardation and aberrant behaviors resulted in improved skills and fewer negative statements by the paraprofessional and decreased aberrant behaviors and increased compliance by the student. Follow-up at 55 weeks indicated maintenance of improved skills and student behaviors. (Author/DB)

Mason, R. A., Gurnerset, A. B., Irvin, D. W. (2020). From the frontlines: Perceptions of paraprofessionals’ roles and responsibilities. Teacher Education and Special Education.

The paraeducator workforce as well as the breadth of their responsibilities to serve students in special education has increased considerably in public schools. Unfortunately, research to identify the most effective methods for training paraeducators has not kept pace. Addressing this dynamic, through an implementation science framework, requires a better understanding of contextual factors. In this study, focus groups (FGs) with paraeducators and teachers were conducted to examine (a) responsibilities, training needs, and related issues of paraprofessionals; (b) training needs and related issues of teachers as supervisors of paraeducators; and (c) factors that support or impede special educators’ self-efficacy and their perception of competence of their colleagues. Four FGs, homogeneous based on role and assignment (mild vs. moderate-to-severe disabilities), were conducted utilizing a semistructured interview protocol. Qualitative content analysis revealed important challenges and training-related deficiencies experienced by both teachers and paraeducators, as well as suggestions for addressing these issues.

Mason, R. A., Schnitz, A. G., Gerow, S., An, Z.G., & Willis, H. P. (2018). Effects of teacher-implemented coaching to increase the accuracy of data collected by paraeducators. Journal of Behavioral Education. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s10864-018-9310-2.

The purpose of the present study was to assess the impact of coaching with performance feedback from teachers on accuracy of paraeducators’ momentary time sampling (MTS) data of students’ on-task behavior. Two lead teachers and three paraeducators participated in the study. The relation between coaching and accuracy of the data collection was evaluated using a multiple-baseline across paraeducators design. Baseline data from this study suggest that some paraeducators need explicit instruction in how to collect data with fdelity. Once coaching with performance feedback from teachers was implemented, there was an immediate increase in accuracy of data collection by paraeducators, as measured by inter-rater agreement, indicating a functional relationship between the independent and dependent variables. These results highlight that teacher-led coaching is feasible and efective for increasing paraeducators’ MTS data collection accuracy and provides preliminary evidence that the accuracy maintained 1–2 months following cessation of formal coaching sessions. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Martin T. & Alborz, A. (2014). Supporting the education of pupils with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities: The views of teaching assistants regarding their own learning and development needs. British Journal of Special Education, 41(3), 309-327.

Learning support assistants or teaching assistants play a vital role in the education of pupils with complex learning disabilities, routinely supporting students on a 1:1 basis without the direct supervision of teachers. Despite the responsibility afforded these classroom support staff, there appear to be few training programs designed for this specialized role. This qualitative study, by Trudi Martin of the Manchester Institute of Education, was undertaken at a special school in England. The study explored the views of 17 teaching assistants and five teachers regarding the extent to which teaching assistant training equipped them to support pupils with complex learning needs. The findings illustrated that much of the training, including that on the Qualifications and Credit Framework, provided inadequate information and guidance. Without sufficient knowledge to underpin their practice, teaching assistants are impeded in the educational support they can give to pupils, who face significant learning challenges, with a resultant impact on their students’ ability to learn and develop new skills.

McInerney M., Zumeta, R.O., Gandhi, A.G. (2014). Building and sustaining complex systems: Addressing common challenges to implementing intensive intervention. Teaching Exceptional Children, 46(4), 54-63.

School and district personnel have identified common challenges in implementing individualized, intensive interventions for students with severe, persistent learning and behavioral needs. The National Center on Intensive Intervention has worked with scores of local educators—including district administrators, building principals, special and general education teachers, school psychologists, and paraeducators—in individualizing intensive interventions on a student-by-student basis. This work has led to the identification of specific strategies practitioners can use to develop a manageable, sustainable process for intensive intervention—with the goal of improving student learning and enhancing student behavior to promote stronger achievement.

McConkey R. & Abbott, L. (2011). Meeting the professional needs of learning support assistants for pupils with complex needs. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 1419-1424.

Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) in mainstream and special schools are increasingly required to assist teachers with pupils who have complex special needs. This study examined through a questionnaire the perceptions of LSAs (N=154) working in a range of schools as to their training needs and, through interviews, sought the views of the senior school staff and nurses (N=6) on how best pupils with complex needs can be assisted by LSAs. A process model is proposed to enable LSAs to fully support inclusion on schools and to tread a clear pathway towards their professional development.

McCulloch E. B., & Noonan, M.L. (2013). Impact of online training videos on the implementation of and training by three elementary school paraprofessionals. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 48(1), 1-15. daddcec.org

With the number of students with autism and related developmental disabilities increasing and a lack of trained professionals, solutions are needed to provide training on a large scale. Alternative training approaches need to be developed so that paraprofessionals can access training in an efficient and effective way. One such possibility is online training. A multiple baseline design across participants was used to evaluate the impact of online training videos (OTV) on the implementation of mand training with three paraprofessionals in a public school setting. The three paraprofessionals were of Hawaiian ancestry, ages 32, 34, and 42 years. Three elementary aged students with autism and developmental disabilities also participated in the study. They were ages, 6, 8, and 10 years, and also of Hawaiian ancestry. All participants lived in a rural area of Hawaii. After the OTVs, the percentage of correct implementation of mand training increased for all paraprofessional participants and maintained over time. Improvements in accurate teaching were also accompanied by increases in the rate of spontaneous manding by the students. Results support the use of online training as an effective alternative to inservice training for paraprofessionals.

McKenzie A.R. & Lewis, S. (2008). The role and training of paraprofessionals who work with students who are visually impaired. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 102(8), 459-471.

Abstract: This survey of teachers of students with visual impairments and paraprofessionals who work with students with visual impairments found that more than 35% of the paraprofessionals were providing direct instruction in skills in the expanded core curriculum. Thus, the roles of these two groups need to be clarified.

McKenzie B. (2011). Empowering Paraprofessionals through Professional Development. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 77(4), 38-41. Retrieved from Delta Kappa Gamma Society International.

Paraprofessionals in special education settings serve an important role in the education of students with disabilities, but they very often do not receive the same level of professional development given to other service providers. Ongoing professional development is a critical component in retaining paraprofessionals. An urban school district in Colorado implemented a paraprofessional development program that produced three significant outcomes. First, retention of special education paraprofessionals increased. Second, several special education paraprofessionals chose to enter a teacher education program to secure their teaching license in special education. Third, collaboration among IEP team members increased. Professional development topics included Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 2004, individual learner characteristics, instructional strategies, behavior management, Response to Intervention, and case law.

McLachlan B. (2015). Helping or hindering: Understanding the professional development needs of learning support assistants in post-compulsory education in England. World Journal of Educational Research, 2(2), 99-116.

This paper reports findings from a research project which developed and introduced the Enhanced Learning Support Assistant Programme (ELSAP). Untrained learning support assistants who were supporting students with Special Educational Needs and Disability (SEND) in a College for Further Education in England were encouraged to enroll on ELSAP to enhance their professional development. The purpose of this paper is to share findings from the project and to report on some key professional developmental needs that college LSAs who worked in inclusive college classrooms have. Quantitative methodologies were employed and data were systematically collected over a fourteen-week period during ELSAP delivery and implementation. Findings indicate key gaps in the professional knowledge and practice of LSAs; misconceptions of their own role, responsibilities and tasks; unsatisfactory knowledge on SEND and appropriate interventions; limited understanding of physical symptoms on learning and little/no previous or existing knowledge and skills of the college curricula and unsatisfactory knowledge on how to motivate learners with SEND during the teaching-learning-process. Findings furthermore demonstrate that LSAs has a limited understanding of college policies/codes of conduct; lack knowledge on adult learning theories and lack professionalism in general._

Morehouse J.A., & Albright, L. (1991). The training trends and needs of paraprofessionals in transition service delivery agencies. Teacher Education and Special Education, 14(4), 248-256.

This study examined the training options and needs of paraprofessionals who provide transition services to students with disabilities in public school and adult agencies. Questionnaire responses of 142 individuals and interviews with 27 paraprofessionals and supervisors indicated that few structured training programs for these paraprofessionals exist. The competencies and training needs of these personnel were identified. (Author/DB)

Morgan J., Ashbaker, B.Y., & Allred, D. (2000). Providing training for paraeducators: What motivates them to attend? The Researcher: A Publication of the Northern Rocky Mountain Educational Research Association 15(1), 50-55.

“With the increase in numbers of paraeducators (teacher’s aides, classroom assistants, paraprofessionals) in classrooms in the last half century, and the increased sophistication of their assigned roles, the issue of training for this group becomes critical. Much of the training which is currently provided to paraeducators is not linked to a career pay structure, and administrators may be skeptical as to whether paraeducators would be willing to attend training given this lack of a vehicle for recognizing increased skill and knowledge levels. Paraeducators in three Western states were surveyed to ascertain their motivation for attending training. The results of this study suggest that paraeducators’; motivation for attending training is based on a simple desire to be better equipped to perform the tasks required of them.”

Morgan J., & Hofmeister, A.M. (1997). Staff development curricula for the paraeducator: Observations from the research. CASE in Point 10(2), 37-41.

Mueller P.H. (2003). Building capacity to attract, train, support and retain paraeducators. Williston, VT: Northeast Regional Resource Center.

It’s now out in the open…our schools cannot function without the assistance of paraprofessionals who provide instructional support to our students. With the advent of the “No Child Left Behind Act,” (NCLB) the public is coming to grips with the fact that many of our most challenged students have been educated by a primarily untrained, under-supervised workforce. Recent research investigations in the field of “paraeducation” have reported both the positive and negative impacts of paraeducator support on students with disabilities and their atrisk peers (Pickett, 2003). A closer look at the research may assist districts in systemic reform efforts that will help attract, train, support and retain members of this critical workforce. This article will provide a brief review of current Federal legislation, important research regarding paraeducators and an in depth description of one school district’s attempt to systemically reform its paraeducator service delivery model, in order to improve services for, and benefits to, students with disabilities and their at-risk peers.

Murphy A., Robinson, S. E., Cote, D. L., Karge, B. K., & Lee, T. (2015). A teachers use of video to train paraprofessionals in pivotal response techniques. Journal of Special Education Apprenticeship, 4(2), 1-18.

Research has shown that students with moderate-severe disabilities need direct and frequent social instruction in order to communicate and play with their peers. At the same time, there is little commensurate support for the paraprofessionals tasked with providing this support. It is imperative, then, that paraprofessionals have effective strategies in their repertoire of practices to facilitate social interaction. This investigation examined one classroom teacher’s use of video to train two paraprofessionals in Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT), an evidence based practice for students with autism. Findings suggest that the teacherprovided video training was effective in improving paraprofessionals’ PRT implementation, and subsequently, the social interactions of their students with disabilities other than autism, namely cerebral palsy and Down’s syndrome. Findings along with future directions for video-based training in the school setting are discussed.

Ogeltree, B. T., Bartholomew, P., Price, J. R. (2019). Large-group application of communication partner instruction with stakeholders of adults with severe intellectual disabilities. Communications Disorders Quarterly.

This brief report describes a large-group application of the Communication Partner Instruction (CPI) training model as a means of improving the interactive skills of stakeholders who communicate with individuals with severe intellectual disabilities presenting complex communication and physical profiles. Findings support CPI for large stakeholder groups as study participants reported general satisfaction with both the training sequence and their use of skills learned 1 year post training.

O’Keeffe, B. V. Slocum, T. A., & Magnusson, R. (2013). The effects of a fluency training package on paraprofessionals’ presentation of a reading intervention. Journal of Special Education, 47(1), 14-27.

Paraprofessionals are widely employed in response to intervention (RTI) settings to provide instruction to students at-risk for reading disabilities. However, little research has addressed effective and efficient ways to train these paraprofessionals to deliver instruction with high fidelity. In addition, given the limited time and finances available in most districts, training needs to be as efficient as possible. This study assessed the effects of a 5-hour fluency training package on the presentation rates, praise rates, and error correction accuracy of five paraprofessionals providing supplemental reading instruction within an RTI system using a multiple baseline design across participants. Students’ reading accuracy and percentage of intervals with on-task behavior were evaluated. Paraprofessionals generally increased their presentation rates, praise rates, and error correction accuracy. Students’ behaviors were affected less.

Parker A.T., & Nelson, C. (2016). Toward a comprehensive system of personnel development in deafblind education. American Annals of the Deaf, 161(4), 486-501.

STUDENTS WHO ARE deafblind are a unique population with unique needs for learning, communication, and environmental access. Two roles have been identified as important to their education: teacher of the deafblind and intervener. However, these roles are not officially recognized in most states. Because of this lack of recognition and the low incidence of deafblindness, it is difficult to sustain systems that prepare highly qualified personnel with advanced training and knowledge in educational strategies for children and youth who are deafblind. The authors propose a comprehensive system of personnel development (CSPD) for deafblind education. The components of this system are standards, preservice training, in-service/professional development, leadership development, research, and, finally, planning coordination, and evaluation. The authors describe elements of the model that are being implemented and provide suggestions to support the future development of a comprehensive system.

Parsons M.B., & Reid, D.H. (1999). Training basic teaching skills to paraeducators of students with severe disabilities: A one-day program. Teaching Exceptional Children, 31(4), 48-55.

Describes a one-day Teaching Skills Training Program to train paraprofessional school personnel working with students with severe disabilities. The program focuses on four basic teaching competencies: task analysis, least-to-most assistive prompting, reinforcement, and error correction. The training format incorporates a classroom-based component, on-the-job monitoring and feedback, and follow-up supervision. (DB).

Passaro P. D., Pickett, A. L., Latham, G., HongBo, W. (1994). The training and support needs of paraprofessionals in rural special education. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 13(4), 3-9.

Two surveys of rural paraprofessionals, teachers, and administrators in special education identified paraprofessionals’ perceived training and support needs, current training requirements for special education paraprofessionals, and effective methods of providing training in rural areas. Results encompass demographics, extent and quality of supervision, retention issues, previous training, and training needs. Bar graphs detail paraprofessional and supervisor ratings of paraprofessional competencies. (RAH)

Pickett, A.L., Gerlach, K., Morgan, R., Likins, M., & Wallace, T. (2007). Paraeducators in schools: Strengthening the educational team. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

P. L. 107-110, 107th Cong. (2001) (enacted) No Child Left Behind Act. Retrieved from:

Outlines the requirements for paraeducators contained in the NCLB legislation. Consult your state department of education for specific interpretations of the law as required by your state.

Potter C.A. & Richardson, H.R. (1999). Facilitating classroom assistants’ professional reflection through video workshops. British Journal of Special Education 26 (1), 34-36.

Describes a training program for classroom assistants which focused on development of reflective skills. The program used short video recordings of classroom situations followed by group discussion. A framework for evaluating the video situations and discussing them is also offered. (DB)

Quilty, K.M. (2007). Teaching paraprofessionals how to write and implement social stories for students with autism spectrum disorders. Remedial and Special Education, 28, 182-189.

A multiple-baseline design across subjects was used to determine if paraprofessionals could be effectively taught to write and implement “Social Stories”TM**] that shared accurate social information and had a positive impact on the targeted behaviors of students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Three paraprofessional-student pairs participated in the study. The data revealed that paraprofessionals could be effectively taught how to write and implement “Social Stories” Furthermore, the targeted student behaviors decreased after the implementation of the intervention. Maintenance data showed continued use of the “Social Stories” intervention and its effectiveness with the students with ASD.

Radford J., Bosanquet, P., Webster, R., & Blatchford, P. (2015). Scaffolding learning for indepedence: Clarifying teacher and teacher assistant roles for children with special educational needs. Learning and instruction, 36, 1-10.

Support for children with special educational needs (SEN) in inclusive classrooms, in many countries, continues to be provided by teaching assistants (TAs). Whilst they frequently take responsibility for instruction, they are rarely adequately trained and prepared. As TAs have ample opportunities for individualised and group interactions, this paper recommends scaffolding as the key theory to inform their practice. From a large dataset of interactions in mathematics and literacy lessons, episodes of TA scaffolding were selected. Using conversation analysis, three scaffolding roles emerged: 1) a support role that maintained learner engagement, on-task behaviour and motivation; 2) a repair function that focused on learning and fostered independence when children were in difficulty; and c) a heuristic role that encouraged students to use their own learning strategies. The paper concludes with implications for trainers and managers and how teachers can support TAs in implementing each role.

Rea P. (January 2001). Paraprofessionals: Training for success. Quinlan’s Special Education Law Bulletin, 7(1), 1-2.

This brief article discusses the importance of training paraprofessionals while acknowledging that adequate training and opportunities still do not exist at a sufficient level to meet IDEA requirements in many school districts. The author states, that “the number of paraprofessionals in the school workforce [is] roughly doubling every decade.” (p. 1). She also suggests that the shortages of paraprofessionals and the fact that schools can “employ three or four paraprofessionals for the cost of one teacher” (p. 1) will mean that the training challenge will continue to be present and probably will grow. She makes the following suggestions: (a) develop clear job descriptions (older ones are often outdated), (b) train your own staff to train, © match assignments so that experienced teachers are with novice paraprofessionals, (d) attempt to match staff training and experience to specialized duties, (e) cross-train so more than one person knows how to perform specialized tasks, (f) try to avert the problem of counterproductive dependencies, (g) solicit input from paraprofessionals about the potential content of training, (h) establish a regular cycle of training, and (i) train paraprofessionals and teachers together when appropriate. The closes by stating, “select the best candidates possible and then devote energy and funds to equipping them with the tools for the important work they do…” (p. 2).

Reinoehl R. B., & Halle, J. W. (1994). Increasing the assessment probe performance of teacher aides through written prompts. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 272-279.

This study found that delivering data cards to three special education teacher aides prompting them to conduct daily social-greeting probes of students with severe disabilities was effective in increasing the level of probing and was accompanied by less variability, higher sustained probing rates, and more equitable probing compared to not using the cards. (Author/JDD)

Riggs C.G. (2001, January/February). Ask the paraprofessionals: What are your training needs? Teaching Exceptional Children, 33(3), 78-83.

This study examined the perceived training needs of school paraprofessionals using a survey of approximately 200 paraprofessionals, analysis of written responses by 150 paraprofessional conference attendees, and interviews with 20 paraprofessionals from several school districts. Respondents expressed a need for training in knowledge of specific disabilities, behavior management, working with other adults, and inclusive practices. (Contains references.) (DB)

Robinson S. E. (2011). Teaching paraprofessionals of students with autism to implement pivotal response treatment in inclusive school settings using a brief video feedback training package. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 26(2) 105-118.

Given that students with autism spend the majority of their days in school settings, largely supported by paraprofessionals, it is important that these paraprofessionals receive adequate training. The author investigated a training package consisting of modeling and video-based feedback as a means of enabling paraprofessionals to implement Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) in the inclusive school setting. A multiple baseline design across four paraprofessional -focal student pairs was employed. The findings suggest that the training package was effective and efficient in improving paraprofessional PRT implementation and levels of involvement as well as social communication target behaviors of the students with autism. Generalization across activities and students, maintenance, and social validity were also assessed.

Rogers S. (2018). “Do I have to do it this way?”: A look at how expert-led trainings can affect paraeducators’ job performance and job satisfaction. Trinity Christian College, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2018.

The project will consider how paraprofessionals are trained for their jobs and how this can affect how they feel about their place of employment. Paraprofessionals are called upon to provide service and care to individuals who need extra assistance. However, in order to properly perform specific parts oftheir jobs, they need to have proper trainings that explain how to execute these responsibilities. This project will examine how paraprofessionals are trained for their job by comparing the checklist of training required by one school’s HR department along with what is actually occurring within the classrooms they work in on a daily basis and how these trainings can affect job satisfaction based upon self-disclosure. Some of these responsibilities include taking proper academic data and behavioral data, implementing specific strategies such as when to offer an individual a break, and knowing when to give a consequence such as implementing classroom management strategies. In this study, paraprofessionals will use rating scales to evaluate themselves and how they feel about their skills for particular tasks they complete on a daily basis such as helping students with toileting, following and implementing behavior plans, using sensory strategies, and modeling communication through the use of a communication device as well as their overall job perceptions. In addition, experts will be rating the paraprofessionals within their field of expertise, which means the Speech and Language Pathologist will rate the paraprofessionals’ performance in using communication strategies, the Occupational Therapist will rate the paraprofessionals’ use of OT /sensory strategies, the Behavior Therapist will rate the accuracy of behavior data and implementing behavior strategies, and the classroom teacher will rate the accuracy of academic data and pushing the students to become more independent within the classroom. Each expert will then lead a paraprofessional training session and provide tips and 5 strategies that the paraprofessionals can then use when their students. Once all the trainings are completed, the paraprofessionals will rate themselves again and the experts will rate the paraprofessionals’ performance. These ratings will then be compared to the ratings conducted at the beginning of the project to determine if the trainings had any effect on the paraprofessionals’ job performance and job perceptions.

Russotti J. & Rona S. (2001). In-service training for teacher assistants and others who work with students with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 95 (8), 483-487.

This article reports on a one-day workshop in New York to provide practical information and training for teaching assistants working in the mainstream classroom setting with students who have visual impairments. The workshop provided information on “myths” versus “facts” of visual impairment, eye conditions, orientation and mobility, technology, and activities of daily living. (Contains nine references.) (DB)

Seaman-Tullis, R. L., Cannella-Malone, H. I., & Brock, M. E. (2018). Training a paraprofessional to implement video prompting with error correction to teach a vocational skill. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities. Advance online publication.

Very few individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have been trained in the vocational skills needed to obtain gainful employment. Moreover, although there is an abundance of research evaluating the practice of training practitioners of students with ASD to use evidence-based practices to teach a wide variety of skills, there have been few that apply this training to the acquisition of vocational tasks. This study uses a multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design to evaluate the training methods used to train a paraprofessional in the preparation and implementation of video prompting and error correction with his student with ASD. Furthermore, the behavior and learning of both the paraprofessional and student are measured. Results indicate that the training package resulted in increased video prompting implementation behavior for the paraprofessional, as well as corresponding, increased vocational skill behavior for the student.

Seely, K., Smith, La Toria, Lieberman, L. J., Grenier, M. (2020). Micro-training: A path to collaborative success with paraeducators. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 91(8), 46-48. DOI: 10.1080/07303084.2020.1800342

Morrison and colleagues found that paraeducators desired professional development for physical education, specifically collaborative professional development–so the teachers and paraeducators can learn strategies for working together.–However, it is not always possible for paraeducators to be trained at the beginning of the school year for a number of reasons including time constraints and scheduling conflicts. The purpose of this article–is to–present–various types–of–micro-trainings–that can be provided to–paraeducators–throughout the course of the school year.

Sobeck, E.E., Robertson, R., Smith, J. (2019). The effects of didactic instruction and performance feedback on paraeducator implementation of behavior support strategies in inclusive settings. The Journal of Special Education.

Many paraeducators have no formal education beyond high school and are provided with minimal training once on the job. Furthermore, as more schools turn to inclusionary practices, the impetus for highly qualified paraeducators becomes more important. However, little research has examined efficient ways to train paraeducators who work in inclusive classrooms. Through an adapted alternating treatments design (AATD), the general and comparative effects of two prominent training approaches were assessed: didactic instruction and performance feedback. Analysis of these approaches on paraeducators’ use of positive behavior support strategies in inclusive settings revealed that with an equal amount of training time for each approach, performance feedback consistently produced stronger immediate and maintained effects than didactic instruction.

Storey, K., Smith, D. J., & Strain, P. S. (1993). Use of classroom assistants and peer-mediated intervention to increase integration in preschool settings. Exceptionality, 4, 1-16.

The effectiveness of peer-mediated intervention on the social behavior of eight socially withdrawn preschoolers was examined. Intervention conducted by classroom assistants resulted in the withdrawn preschoolers increasing their social interactions with peers during instructional triads and improving their behavior. (Author/JDD)

Steckelberg A.L., & Vasa, S.F. (1998). How paraeducators learn on the web. Teaching Exceptional Children, 30(5), 54-59.

Describes a paraeducator training program that used the World Wide Web (WWW) to provide self-study instruction units that were accessible from local schools. The WWW allowed for increased interaction between paraeducators and instructors, encouraged discussion among trainees, and facilitated communication between the university and local training liaisons. (CR)

Tittiger, A. (2018). Generalized effects of paraeducator-implemented least-to-most prompting procedures. Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University.

Although there is a body of published research examining the effects of paraeducatorimplemented interventions with students with disabilities, few researchers have systematically measured the generalized effects of these interventions. In the current study, I used a multiple probe across participants design to measure the generalized effectiveness of the implementation of least-to-most (LTM) prompting with a time delay. I used behavioral skills training to train paraeducators to use least-to-most prompting with a time delay with a specific task with a specific student. Then, I asked the paraeducators to implement the same intervention with either a novel task with the same student or the same task with a novel student. Results indicate the paraeducators increased their implementation fidelity following behavior skills training. Factors to consider when training school staff to generalize tasks will be discussed.

Towson J. A., Green, K. B., Abarca, D. L. (2019). Reading beyond the book: educating paraprofessionals to implement dialogic reading for preschool children with language impairments. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education.

We examined how educating paraprofessionals in preschool classrooms on dialogic reading (DR) affected their storybook reading and effects on children’s single word vocabulary. Through a single-case multiple-probe across participants design including four paraprofessionals and eight preschool children, we identified a functional relation between educating paraprofessionals in DR and implementation of the CROWD prompts; yet, no functional relation was observed for the implementation of the evaluate, expand, and repeat strategies. Data collected on children’s expressive near-transfer vocabulary showed all but one child made minimal gains from baseline to intervention, whereas receptive data remained stable for six participants. Results suggested that paraprofessionals implemented the strategies of DR with variable fidelity following a singular training and in-text supports. Additional supports may be necessary for all aspects of the intervention and generalization to be implemented with fidelity and for improvement to carryover to both receptive and expressive vocabulary skills for children.

Uitto, D. J., & Chopra, R. V. (2015) Training programs for teacher assistants. In D.K. Chambers (Ed.), Working with teaching assistants and other support staff for inclusive education, (pp. 241-262). Bingley, United Kingdom: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Training, particularly in the form of comprehensive professional development, continues to be a need for paraeducators (also known as teacher assistants). Training needs begin with an initial set of knowledge and skills and is built based upon the paraeducator’s role with individual students and the educational settings. Standards or guidance documents are available from a few individual states within the United States, higher education systems, and professional organizations that serve individuals with exceptional needs and agencies. An international professional organization, Council for Exceptional Children [CEC] (2011), identified a common skill set that reinforces standards for defining curricula when providing training to paraeducators. Key to their ongoing professional development is the on-the-job coaching by the education professional (teacher), to support the application of skills into the inclusive setting. Various forms of professional development are available including online trainings in addition to face-to-face.

Vadasy P.F., Sanders, E.A., Tudor, S. (2007). Effectiveness of paraeducator-supplemented individual instruction. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40(6), 508-525.

A total of 46 children in Grades 2 and 3 with low word-level skills were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups that received supplemental phonics-based reading instruction. One group received intervention October through March (21.5 hours), and one group served as a control from October through March and later received intervention March through May (17.5 hours). Paraeducators trained in a standard treatment protocol provided individual instruction for 30 min per day, 4 days per week. At the March posttest, the early treatment (ET; n = 23) group outperformed the controls (late treatment, LT; n = 20) on reading accuracy and passage fluency. Across both groups, second graders outperformed third graders on these same measures. At the 3-month follow-up, the ET group showed no evidence of decline in reading accuracy, passage fluency, or words spelled; however, 3rd-grade ET students had significantly higher spelling skills compared to 2nd graders. The LT group demonstrated significant growth during their intervention in reading accuracy and spelling, but not passage fluency. When we compared the ET and LT groups on their gains per instructional hour, we found that the ET group made significantly greater gains than the LT group across all 3 measures. The results support the value of paraeducator-supplemented reading instruction for students below grade level in word identification and reading fluency.

Vadasy P.F., Sanders, E.A., Peyton, J.A. (2006). Code-oriented instruction for kindegarten students at risk for reading difficulties: a randomized field trial with paraeducator implementers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 508-528.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of code-oriented supplemental instruction for kindergarten students at risk for reading difficulties. Paraeducators were trained to provide 18 weeks of explicit instruction in phonemic skills and the alphabetic code. Students identified by their teachers meeting study eligibility criteria were randomly assigned to 2 groups: individual supplemental instruction and control. Students were pretested in December, midtested, and posttested in May-June of kindergarten. At posttest, treatment students significantly outperformed controls on measures of reading accuracy, reading efficiency, oral reading fluency, and developmental spelling. Treatment students had significantly higher linear growth rates in phonemic awareness and alphabetic knowledge during the kindergarten treatment. At a 1-year follow-up, significant group differences remained in reading accuracy and efficiency. Ethical challenges of longitudinal intervention research are discussed. Findings have policy implications for making supplemental instruction in critical early reading skills available.

Walker, V. L., Douglas, K. H., & Brewer, C (2019). Teacher-Delivered training to promote paraprofessional implementation of systematic instruction. Teacher Education and Special Education.

As paraprofessionals gain more instructional responsibilities for individual students, feasible training strategies must be established to promote effective delivery of instruction. This train-the-trainer study was designed to teach paraprofessionals how to implement an evidence-based instructional practice under the direction of the classroom teacher. After receiving training from a university researcher, a special education teacher trained three paraprofessionals to implement constant time delay while teaching three students with multiple disabilities. The paraprofessional training consisted of a workshop, video modeling, and coaching with performance feedback. A single-case multiple baseline across paraprofessionals design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the teacher-delivered training package. All paraprofessionals implemented the systematic instructional procedures with high levels of fidelity and accuracy after training. The special education teacher and paraprofessionals shared their perceptions on the highly effective training and value of the study through social validity surveys. Implications and limitations of the study are discussed.

Walker, V. L., Douglas, K. H., & Chung, Y-C. (2017). An Evaluation of Paraprofessionals’ Skills and Training Needs in Supporting Students with Severe Disabilities. International Journal of Special Education, 32(3), 460-471.

Careful consideration is essential for developing and conducting effective paraprofessional development. This study described a process of paraprofessional development and outcomes from assessments, workshops, and social validation focus group interviews from one rural public school in the USA. Fourteen paraprofessionals and their supervisors completed multiple surveys to indicate their perceived skill level and training needs before outside experts conducted a workshop on two high priority skill areas. Results showed that paraprofessionals increased their knowledge and skill development after a full-dayworkshop. Although paraprofessionals found the training procedures and targeted strategies to be socially valid, they identified challenges associated with implementation of the strategies and access to follow-up coaching.

Walker V. A, & Snell, M. E. (2016). Teaching paraprofessionals to implement function-based interventions. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, First published date: October-20-2016 doi: 10.1177/1088357616673561.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of workshops and coaching on paraprofessional implementation of function-based interventions. The results of indirect and direct functional behavior assessment guided the development of intervention strategies for three students with autism and intellectual disability. Following intervention, students’ appropriate behavior increased and challenging behavior decreased. In general, paraprofessionals implemented strategies with high levels of fidelity and judged both the coaching and workshop training procedures and student intervention strategies as socially valid. Implications for practice, limitations, and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Walker V. L. & Smith, C. G. (2015). Training paraprofessionals to support students with disabilities: A literature review. Exceptionality, 23(3), 170-191.

The purpose of this literature review is to describe intervention research studies in which paraprofessionals received training applicable to student with disabilities. Thirty studies were systematically reviewed to identify (a) characteristics of study participants and settings, (b) characteristics of paraprofessional training and paraprofessional-implemented intervention evaluated within these studies, (c) quality of the studies, and (d) implications for practice and areas for future research. Overall, paraprofessional training and subsequent intervention with students yielded positive outcomes. Training sessions typically were delivered by workshops, lectures, or classes and classroom-based training. However, numerous studies failed to demonstrate characteristics of study quality.

Warren S., Prakash, P., Thompson, D., Natarajan, B., Carlson, C., Fowler, K. (2016). Design projects motivated and informed by the needs of severely disabled autistic children. 2016 38th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC).

Technology can positively impact the lives of severely disabled autistic children if used to (a) gather situational awareness data regarding their health, development, and behavior and (b) assist them with learning and day-to-day activities. This paper summarizes student design projects in the Kansas State University (KSU) College of Engineering that are motivated and informed by the needs of severely disabled children at Heartspring, Wichita, KS. These efforts are supported through the National Science Foundation’s General and Age-Related Disabilities Engineering (GARDE) program. Projects relate thematically to (1) facets of a bed sensor system that unobtrusively tracks nighttime health parameters and child activity and (2) miscellaneous resources geared toward paraeducator (“para”) and child well-being and development._

Wellington W. & Stackhouse, J. (2011). Using visual support for language and learning in children with SLCN: A training programme for teachers and teaching assistants. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 27, 183-201.

The majority of children with speech, language and communication needs (SLCN) are educatedin mainstream classrooms where they can have difficulties with the language needed for learning. Although visual support in the classroom can help to scaffold children’s learning and socialization, many teachers feel ill equipped to use this. They do not feel confident enough to identify, differentiate and support children with SLCN. This article presents a training and mentoring programme delivered to teachers and teaching assistants (TAs) in seven mainstream primary schools. It involved a group training session outlining the nature and identification of children with SLCN, impact of SLCN on accessing the curriculum, and visual strategies and techniques for supporting learning. This was followed up by six, weekly mentoring sessions in the classroom with a speech and language therapist (SLT) or SLT assistant (SLTA). Pre- and post-training questionnaires and classroom observations were used to examine the impact of this programme. The observations were repeated after one school term to establish if the use of visual support had been maintained. Although there were differences between the teachers and TAs pre-training, they both increased their use of visual support strategies in the classroom post-training and maintained this one term after the training had ceased. The method and practical implications of this study are discussed.

Wermer, L, Brock, M. A., Seaman, R.L (2017). Efficacy of a teacher training a paraprofessional to promote communication for a student with autism and complex communication needs. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities.

Students with complex communication needs require well-designed supports to communicate effectively in school settings. Although paraprofessionals are often charged with supporting these students, they are rarely trained in how to promote communication, and there is limited research on how they might be trained. In this study, we used a multiple baseline across behaviors design to test the efficacy of a teacher-implemented training package to train a paraprofessional to provide opportunities for an elementary student with autism to respond, set up opportunities for her to initiate, and implement a systematic prompting hierarchy. We demonstrated a functional relation between the teacher-implemented training and paraprofessional acquisition of the strategies, and paraprofessional implementation coincided with increased student communication. This study replicates previous findings that paraprofessionals can be trained to implement evidence-based practices to promote use of alternative/augmentative communication, and extends this literature by demonstrating that a classroom teacher can deliver paraprofessional training effectively.

Wills, H. P., Mason, R., Gregori, E., & Veatch, M. (2019). Effects of self-monitoring on the praise rates of paraprofessionals for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. The Elementary School Journal, 119(4), 562-579.

The limitations and challenges of paraprofessional training are well documented. These issues are magnified by the increasing reliance on paraprofessionals to provide vital support for students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Despite evidence supporting self-monitoring for improving teacher and paraprofessional skills, there are limited demonstrations of how paraprofessionals improve their use of evidence-based strategies through self-monitoring. This study examined the effects of self-monitoring on paraprofessionals’ total use of praise and behavior-specific praise. A first exploratory item included the extent to which any increases in praise covaried with paraprofessional use of reprimands. A second exploratory item determined whether any changes in praise covaried with the engagement and disruptive behavior of their students with EBD. Self-monitoring was associated with increased total praise, a moderately increased use of behavior-specific praise, and improvements in student engagement along with decreases in student disruptive behavior. Implications for behavioral interventions for students with EBD are discussed.

Wright, P.I., Prescott, R. (2018). Utilizing technology for professional learning in the dissemination of evidence–based practices to paraprofessionals working in public education. Journal of Elementary Education, 10(3), 331-337.

Although paraprofessionals are pivotal for the educational success of learners with autism, limited professional learning opportunities are provided resulting in inadequate application of evidence-based practices in their work. In this participatory action research study, thirty-six paraprofessionals participated in professional learning utilizing workshops and a commercially available professional learning platform, Rethink. The study included didactic training, video-based modeling and applied practice activities in the classroom. Paraprofessionals improved their knowledge and self-efficacy in the application of evidence-based practices. Supporting classroom teacher’s social validity also reported improved paraprofessional performance. These findings suggest a possible avenue for supporting paraprofessional professional learning via integrating web-based technology to access video models paired with traditional professional learning methods to improve the application of evidence-based practices in the classroom environment.

Zangari, C. (2019). Encourage students to use AAC by supporting communication partners. Leader, 24(4), 36-37.

“I wish Lily would use her AAC to do more than ask for things.” “Jayson has a speech-generating device but he doesn’t really use it outside of therapy.” “How can I get Marcus to use his ‘talker’ when I’m not in the classroom to support him?” Allowing students with little or no functional speech a way to say whatever they want to say, whenever they want, to anyone of their choosing is an ambitious goal. This is exactly what speech-language pathologists hope to accomplish with augmentative and alternative communication (AAC).

Zimmer, K. E., Bennett, K. E., Driver, M. K. (2018). Training caregivers to establish joint attention in children with autism through storybooks. (2018) Journal of the Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities Council for Exceptional Children (DADD), 5(1), 127-142.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of a caregiver intervention called Meaningful Interactions Through Storybooks (MITS). The MITS intervention was created to teach caregivers of children with autism four interactive reading strategies in an attempt to increase children’s joint attention skills using storybooks. A multiple probe across dyads was used to examine the effectiveness of the MITS intervention. Results indicated that caregivers were able to effectively implement the MITS intervention. In addition, increases in the children’s joint attention skills and expressive language were observed. As a result, these findings support that the MITS intervention produced changes in caregivers’ storybook reading strategies.